Beyond "Fleeing Beasts": Reclaiming the Psychology of Fear in Qur'an 74:50-51
By the turn of the 21st century, a subtle but persistent skepticism had seeped into the academic study of the Quran. Its target: the classical exegetical tradition (tafsīr). The argument, crisp and compelling, suggests that much of what we consider "context" for the Quran's revelation is merely later guesswork, retroactively projected onto the text by early Muslims who were themselves puzzled. Its logic is rooted in a newly formulated—and allegedly "empirical"—observation: that the proliferation of contradictory interpretations for a single word or verse proves that early commentators were not transmitting historical knowledge, but engaging in creative speculation. This view, championed by revisionist scholars like Joshua Little, presents the classical tafsīr edifice not as a preservation of meaning, but as a tapestry of conflicting inferences.
Its implications, as presented, are profound; if the companions like Ibn Abbas could hold a dozen contradictory opinions on a single word, then the entire foundation of traditional interpretation is built on sand. 🏜️ But the farther back one peers into the sources—into the classical Arabic commentaries, the intricate linguistics, and the holistic syntax of the Quranic text itself—the more this modern skeptic's narrative reveals itself to be a profound misunderstanding of how language, especially divine speech, operates. In the case of Qur'an 74:51, the verse describing those who flee the Reminder "like startled onagers, fleeing from a qaswarah," we do not find a chaotic free-for-all of meanings. Instead, we find a constellation of valid interpretations, each illuminating a different facet of a divinely engineered, multi-layered rhetorical masterpiece.
The modern, reductionist interpretation of this verse emerged not from a rigorous engagement with the tafsīr tradition's intrinsic logic, but from a post-enlightenment obsession with finding a single, "original" meaning. It draws, crucially, on the same hermeneutical violence it purports to expose—ripping reports from their collective, dialogical body and judging them by a standard of monolithic consistency that the Quran's own literary genius defies. It is a reading borrowed from the playbook of source-critical historians, applied to a living scholarly tradition with its own rules of understanding—not as proof of the tradition's bankruptcy, but as a testament to the Quran's boundless depth.
And yet, this skeptical interpretation has cast a shadow so long it is often mistaken for academic consensus. It has been wielded to cast doubt on the integrity of the Islamic scholarly tradition, to paint the companions as confused inventers of narrative, and to reduce divine eloquence to a messy game of historical telephone. But to accept this reading as the final word on tafsīr is to slander the intellectual sophistication of a 1,400-year-old conversation. It is to confuse the glorious, multifaceted explosion of meaning with scholarly failure.
This blog post will trace the exegetical journey of the word qaswarah. It will deploy the very tools the skeptics ignore—linguistic root theory (اِشْتِقَاق), syntactic flow (سِيَاق) 🠖, and cultural symbolism—to demonstrate why, within the verse's immediate context and the Quran's overarching rhetoric, the "Lion" 🦁 emerges not as one option among many, but as the most powerful and coherent interpretation. We will see how the "startled onager" (ḥumur mustanfirah) 🐴💨—a creature of legendary health and longevity in Arab zoological lore—finds its perfect, terrifying counterpart not in a band of hunters, but in the ultimate predator, the king of beasts. We will prove that this choice creates the Quran's devastating ironic punch: you flee from guidance as if it were the ultimate danger, while ignoring the true "Lion" you should fear—the Hereafter. ☠️
This is the story of a divine metaphor maligned, a scholarly tradition misread, and a linguistic truth that the classical commentators, in their beautiful, varied chorus, have been affirming all along. The variation isn't the bug; it's the feature of a text whose layers of meaning are as infinite as the wisdom of its Author. ✨
Section I: The Quranic Text – A Symphony of Escalating Irony
To understand the debate surrounding the qaswarah, one must first listen to the verse in its native habitat. The word does not exist in a vacuum; it is the explosive punchline to a carefully constructed rhetorical sequence. The passage from Surah Al-Muddaththir (74:49-56) is a masterclass in divine psychology, building from a question of mere neglect to a diagnosis of primal, misplaced terror. It begins not with a roar, but with a question of puzzling indifference:
فَمَا لَهُمْ عَنِ التَّذْكِرَةِ مُعْرِضِينَ (49)“So what is [wrong] with them that they are from the Reminder turning away?” 🤔🙉
The query is almost philosophical, probing the reason behind a deliberate, conscious aversion. But the divine response immediately escalates this intellectual rejection into a spectacle of visceral, animalistic panic:
كَأَنَّهُمْ حُمُرٌ مُّسْتَنفِرَةٌ (50)“As if they are donkeys, startled.” 🐴💥
The word مُسْتَنفِرَةٌ (mustanfirah) is crucial. It derives from the root *N-F-R*, meaning to flee, to bolt, to be spooked into a sudden, instinctual flight. This is not a strategic retreat; it is a nervous system override. The simile transforms the disbelievers from rational agents into creatures governed by base fear. And this image reaches its climax with the verse at the heart of our inquiry:
فَرَّتْ مِن قَسْوَرَةٍ (51)“Fleeing from a qaswarah!” 🏃♂️💨➡️[???]
Here, the Arabic syntax creates a powerful, rhythmic cadence. The sequence حُمُرٌ مُّسْتَنفِرَةٌ فَرَّتْ ("startled donkeys, fleeing") is a cascade of panic, and the ambiguous, climactic term قَسْوَرَةٍ (qaswarah) is the terrifying, unseen object of their flight. The rhetorical power hinges entirely on this mystery: What could possibly justify such absolute, undignified terror?
The divine argument then snaps back from the simile to deliver its devastating, real-world diagnosis:
بَلْ يُرِيدُ كُلُّ امْرِئٍ مِّنْهُمْ أَن يُؤْتَىٰ صُحُفًا مُّنَشَّرَةً (52)“No! Rather, every person among them wishes that he would be given pages unfolded.” 📜🙏كَلَّا ۖ بَل لَّا يَخَافُونَ الْآخِرَةَ (53)“No! Rather, they do not fear the Hereafter.” ☠️😱
The transition is jarring and intentional. The discourse moves from the panicked donkeys to the core human sins of arrogance (wanting a personalized revelation) and a catastrophic failure of spiritual priority (fearing the wrong thing). The passage concludes by reasserting the Quran's fundamental nature:
كَلَّا إِنَّهُ تَذْكِرَةٌ (54) فَمَن شَاءَ ذَكَرَهُ (55)“No! Indeed, it is a Reminder. So whoever wills may remember it.”وَمَا يَذْكُرُونَ إِلَّا أَن يَشَاءَ اللَّهُ ۚ هُوَ أَهْلُ التَّقْوَىٰ وَأَهْلُ الْمَغْفِرَةِ (56)“And they will not remember except that Allah wills. He is worthy of fear and worthy of forgiveness.” 🤲✨
The structure is thus a perfect rhetorical arc:
Question: Why do they turn away? (v49)
Simile: They are like spooked donkeys... (v50)
Climax: ...fleeing from a qaswarah! (v51) ← The Pivot Point
Reality Check: Their real problem is arrogance and a lack of fear of the Hereafter. (v52-53)
Conclusion: The Quran is a reminder for those who choose it, and all is by Allah's will. (v54-56)
The entire logical and emotional weight of the argument rests on the pivot in verse 51. The qaswarah must be an object of such undeniable, primal threat that the donkeys' panic is completely justified within the animal world. The subsequent verses then create the supreme irony: You are showing an animal's terror toward the wrong object, while showing no terror toward the thing that truly warrants it. Therefore, identifying the qaswarah is not a mere lexical exercise; it is the key to unlocking the Quran's profound critique of the human condition. The choice of meaning determines the power of the punchline.
Section II: The Etymology of Qaswarah – A Semantic Universe in a Root
To understand the debate surrounding the qaswarah, one must first listen to the verse in its native habitat. The word does not exist in a vacuum; it is the explosive punchline to a carefully constructed rhetorical sequence. The passage from Surah Al-Muddaththir (74:49-56) is a masterclass in divine psychology, building from a question of mere neglect to a diagnosis of primal, misplaced terror. It begins not with a roar, but with a question of puzzling indifference:
فَمَا لَهُمْ عَنِ التَّذْكِرَةِ مُعْرِضِينَ (49)“So what is [wrong] with them that they are from the Reminder turning away?” 🤔🙉
The query is almost philosophical, probing the reason behind a deliberate, conscious aversion. But the divine response immediately escalates this intellectual rejection into a spectacle of visceral, animalistic panic:
كَأَنَّهُمْ حُمُرٌ مُّسْتَنفِرَةٌ (50)“As if they are donkeys, startled.” 🐴💥
The word مُسْتَنفِرَةٌ (mustanfirah) is crucial. It derives from the root *N-F-R*, meaning to flee, to bolt, to be spooked into a sudden, instinctual flight. This is not a strategic retreat; it is a nervous system override. The simile transforms the disbelievers from rational agents into creatures governed by base fear. And this image reaches its climax with the verse at the heart of our inquiry:
فَرَّتْ مِن قَسْوَرَةٍ (51)“Fleeing from a qaswarah!” 🏃♂️💨➡️[???]
Here, the Arabic syntax creates a powerful, rhythmic cadence. The sequence حُمُرٌ مُّسْتَنفِرَةٌ فَرَّتْ ("startled donkeys, fleeing") is a cascade of panic, and the ambiguous, climactic term قَسْوَرَةٍ (qaswarah) is the terrifying, unseen object of their flight. The rhetorical power hinges entirely on this mystery: What could possibly justify such absolute, undignified terror?
The divine argument then snaps back from the simile to deliver its devastating, real-world diagnosis:
بَلْ يُرِيدُ كُلُّ امْرِئٍ مِّنْهُمْ أَن يُؤْتَىٰ صُحُفًا مُّنَشَّرَةً (52)“No! Rather, every person among them wishes that he would be given pages unfolded.” 📜🙏كَلَّا ۖ بَل لَّا يَخَافُونَ الْآخِرَةَ (53)“No! Rather, they do not fear the Hereafter.” ☠️😱
The transition is jarring and intentional. The discourse moves from the panicked donkeys to the core human sins of arrogance (wanting a personalized revelation) and a catastrophic failure of spiritual priority (fearing the wrong thing). The passage concludes by reasserting the Quran's fundamental nature:
كَلَّا إِنَّهُ تَذْكِرَةٌ (54) فَمَن شَاءَ ذَكَرَهُ (55)“No! Indeed, it is a Reminder. So whoever wills may remember it.”وَمَا يَذْكُرُونَ إِلَّا أَن يَشَاءَ اللَّهُ ۚ هُوَ أَهْلُ التَّقْوَىٰ وَأَهْلُ الْمَغْفِرَةِ (56)“And they will not remember except that Allah wills. He is worthy of fear and worthy of forgiveness.” 🤲✨
The structure is thus a perfect rhetorical arc:
Question: Why do they turn away? (v49)
Simile: They are like spooked donkeys... (v50)
Climax: ...fleeing from a qaswarah! (v51) ← The Pivot Point
Reality Check: Their real problem is arrogance and a lack of fear of the Hereafter. (v52-53)
Conclusion: The Quran is a reminder for those who choose it, and all is by Allah's will. (v54-56)
The entire logical and emotional weight of the argument rests on the pivot in verse 51. The qaswarah must be an object of such undeniable, primal threat that the donkeys' panic is completely justified within the animal world. The subsequent verses then create the supreme irony: You are showing an animal's terror toward the wrong object, while showing no terror toward the thing that truly warrants it. Therefore, identifying the qaswarah is not a mere lexical exercise; it is the key to unlocking the Quran's profound critique of the human condition. The choice of meaning determines the power of the punchline.
Section II: The Etymology of Qaswarah – A Semantic Universe in a Root
To understand the debate around qaswarah is to embark on a journey into the heart of the Arabic language, where a single trilateral root can unfold into a cosmos of meaning. The root in question is ق س ر (Qāf-Sin-Rā), a radical whose core essence vibrates with the concept of force, restraint, and overpowering might. This is not a word with a "correct" meaning, but a semantic field whose boundaries encompass everything from hunters to kings, from plants to the night itself.
To understand the debate around qaswarah is to embark on a journey into the heart of the Arabic language, where a single trilateral root can unfold into a cosmos of meaning. The root in question is ق س ر (Qāf-Sin-Rā), a radical whose core essence vibrates with the concept of force, restraint, and overpowering might. This is not a word with a "correct" meaning, but a semantic field whose boundaries encompass everything from hunters to kings, from plants to the night itself.
The Core Root: ق س ر (Q-S-R) – The Essence of Force 💪🔒
At its most fundamental level, the root ق س ر conveys compulsion and overcoming resistance.
قَسَرَ (Qasara): He compelled, coerced, or forced someone against their will.
Example: قَسَرَهُ عَلَى الْأَمْرِ – "He forced him to do the thing." 🫴➡️😠
قَسْر (Qasr): The verbal noun meaning coercion, compulsion, duress.
Example: أَخَذَهُ قَسْرًا – "He took it by force." 💪🎯
اقْتَسَرَ (Iqtasara): To overpower, to subdue. (The intensity is amplified in this form).
قاسِر (Qāsir): The one who compels; the overpowerer.
مَقْسور (Maqsūr): The one who is compelled; the overpowered.
This core idea of "to curtail, to restrain, to overcome" is the seed from which all other meanings, including our majestic qaswarah, grow. 🌱➡️🌳
At its most fundamental level, the root ق س ر conveys compulsion and overcoming resistance.
قَسَرَ (Qasara): He compelled, coerced, or forced someone against their will.
Example: قَسَرَهُ عَلَى الْأَمْرِ – "He forced him to do the thing." 🫴➡️😠
قَسْر (Qasr): The verbal noun meaning coercion, compulsion, duress.
Example: أَخَذَهُ قَسْرًا – "He took it by force." 💪🎯
اقْتَسَرَ (Iqtasara): To overpower, to subdue. (The intensity is amplified in this form).
قاسِر (Qāsir): The one who compels; the overpowerer.
مَقْسور (Maqsūr): The one who is compelled; the overpowered.
This core idea of "to curtail, to restrain, to overcome" is the seed from which all other meanings, including our majestic qaswarah, grow. 🌱➡️🌳
The Semantic Explosion: From "Overpowering" to "The Ultimate Hunter" 🏹➡️🦁
The genius of Arabic morphology is how it builds complex nouns from simple roots. The form فَعْوَلَة (faʿwalah)—which gives us قَسْوَرَة (qaswarah)—often indicates intensity, abundance, or a collective nature. From the root ق س ر (to overpower), this form blossoms into a family of meanings all connected to potent, overpowering entities.
Let's break down the entire semantic spectrum recorded in the classical lexicons like Lisān al-ʿArab and modern dictionaries:
The genius of Arabic morphology is how it builds complex nouns from simple roots. The form فَعْوَلَة (faʿwalah)—which gives us قَسْوَرَة (qaswarah)—often indicates intensity, abundance, or a collective nature. From the root ق س ر (to overpower), this form blossoms into a family of meanings all connected to potent, overpowering entities.
Let's break down the entire semantic spectrum recorded in the classical lexicons like Lisān al-ʿArab and modern dictionaries:
The "Qaswarah" Meaning Spectrum Table 📊
Meaning Type Explanation & Nuance Emoji Vibe 1. The Lion 🦁 Animal The most famous meaning. The "Overpowerer" par excellence. The king of beasts who restrains/curtails the lives of other creatures. 👑🐅💥 2. Hunters/Archers 🏹 Human Collective A band of skilled hunters/archers. They overpower their prey. Key: Lisān al-ʿArab notes this is a collective noun (اسم جامع) with no singular from its same form. 👨👨👨🎯➡️🦌 3. Any Formidable/Intense Being 💪 Abstract Quality Any "strong, severe, or mighty" entity. A powerful youth could be called qaswar. 🧔⚡ 4. The First Half of the Night 🌜 Temporal Qaswarat al-Layl: The part of the night that restrains/curtails movement with its darkness. ⏳🌌 5. A Type of Dense Plant/Shrub 🌿 Botanical A plant known for being thick and abundant. It overpowers the ground it grows on. 🌳🟢
The lexicons are clear: قَسْوَرَة (qaswarah) and its relative قَسْوَر (qaswar) are versatile terms for any dominant, overpowering force in a given context.
| Meaning | Type | Explanation & Nuance | Emoji Vibe |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. The Lion 🦁 | Animal | The most famous meaning. The "Overpowerer" par excellence. The king of beasts who restrains/curtails the lives of other creatures. | 👑🐅💥 |
| 2. Hunters/Archers 🏹 | Human Collective | A band of skilled hunters/archers. They overpower their prey. Key: Lisān al-ʿArab notes this is a collective noun (اسم جامع) with no singular from its same form. | 👨👨👨🎯➡️🦌 |
| 3. Any Formidable/Intense Being 💪 | Abstract Quality | Any "strong, severe, or mighty" entity. A powerful youth could be called qaswar. | 🧔⚡ |
| 4. The First Half of the Night 🌜 | Temporal | Qaswarat al-Layl: The part of the night that restrains/curtails movement with its darkness. | ⏳🌌 |
| 5. A Type of Dense Plant/Shrub 🌿 | Botanical | A plant known for being thick and abundant. It overpowers the ground it grows on. | 🌳🟢 |
The lexicons are clear: قَسْوَرَة (qaswarah) and its relative قَسْوَر (qaswar) are versatile terms for any dominant, overpowering force in a given context.
Section III: The Classical Conversation – A Symphony of Scholarly Voices
The classical Islamic tradition did not speak with a monolithic voice on the meaning of qaswarah. Instead, the tafsīr of Al-Ṭabarī reveals a vibrant, early conversation—a symphony of scholarly opinions, each supported by its own chain of transmission (isnād). To the reductionist critic, this variety appears as contradiction and confusion. To the sincere student, it represents the rich, exploratory spirit of the early community as they delved into the layers of divine speech. 📚🎶
Section III.I: The Tafsīr of Al-Ṭabarī – Documenting the Diversity
Imam Al-Ṭabarī, with the meticulous care of a master archivist, presents us with not one, but four primary camps of interpretation. He doesn't merely list them; he provides the raw data—the chains of narrators leading back to the Companions and their students. Let's break down this "Exegetical Battle Royale." 🤺
Imam Al-Ṭabarī, with the meticulous care of a master archivist, presents us with not one, but four primary camps of interpretation. He doesn't merely list them; he provides the raw data—the chains of narrators leading back to the Companions and their students. Let's break down this "Exegetical Battle Royale." 🤺
🏹 Camp 1: The Archers/Hunters (الرماة / القناص)
This is the most frequently cited opinion in Al-Ṭabarī's presentation, backed by a formidable roster of early authorities.
Key Advocates:
Ibn ʿAbbās (The Prophet's cousin) - via multiple chains 🧠
Abū Mūsā al-Ashʿarī (Companion) 👨
Mujāhid (Renowned student of Ibn ʿAbbās) 🧔
ʿIkrimah (Famous scholar and freed slave of Ibn ʿAbbās) 🗣️
Qatādah (Prominent successor) 🎯
What They Said:
"هي الرماة" ("They are the archers.")
"عصبة قناص من الرماة" ("A band of hunters from among the archers.") 👨👨👨🎯
"قسورة النبل" ("Qaswarah of the arrows" - i.e., the source of the arrows).
The "Linguistic Smackdown" Moment:
A man said to ʿIkrimah: "But it is 'lion' in the language of Ethiopia!" 🤨ʿIkrimah retorted: "The word for lion in Ethiopian is 'عنبسة' (Anbasah)!" 💥🙅♂️(ʿIkrimah, flexing his linguistic muscles, shuts down the loanword theory on the spot!)
This is the most frequently cited opinion in Al-Ṭabarī's presentation, backed by a formidable roster of early authorities.
Key Advocates:
Ibn ʿAbbās (The Prophet's cousin) - via multiple chains 🧠
Abū Mūsā al-Ashʿarī (Companion) 👨
Mujāhid (Renowned student of Ibn ʿAbbās) 🧔
ʿIkrimah (Famous scholar and freed slave of Ibn ʿAbbās) 🗣️
Qatādah (Prominent successor) 🎯
What They Said:
"هي الرماة" ("They are the archers.")
"عصبة قناص من الرماة" ("A band of hunters from among the archers.") 👨👨👨🎯
"قسورة النبل" ("Qaswarah of the arrows" - i.e., the source of the arrows).
The "Linguistic Smackdown" Moment:
A man said to ʿIkrimah: "But it is 'lion' in the language of Ethiopia!" 🤨ʿIkrimah retorted: "The word for lion in Ethiopian is 'عنبسة' (Anbasah)!" 💥🙅♂️(ʿIkrimah, flexing his linguistic muscles, shuts down the loanword theory on the spot!)
👥 Camp 2: A Group of Men (جماعة الرجال)
A more general interpretation, still focusing on a human threat.
Key Advocate:
Ibn ʿAbbās (again!) - but via a different chain. This shows how a single companion could offer different facets of a word's meaning.
What They Said:
"ما أعلمه بلغة أحد من العرب الأسد هي عصب الرجال" ("I do not know it, in the language of any Arab, to be 'lion.' It is a band of men.") 🧔🧔🧔
They cited pre-Islamic poetry as evidence, where qaswarah meant a formidable group.
A more general interpretation, still focusing on a human threat.
Key Advocate:
Ibn ʿAbbās (again!) - but via a different chain. This shows how a single companion could offer different facets of a word's meaning.
What They Said:
"ما أعلمه بلغة أحد من العرب الأسد هي عصب الرجال" ("I do not know it, in the language of any Arab, to be 'lion.' It is a band of men.") 🧔🧔🧔
They cited pre-Islamic poetry as evidence, where qaswarah meant a formidable group.
📢 Camp 3: The Sound of Men (أصوات الرجال)
The most abstract interpretation, focusing on the cause of the fear rather than the object itself.
Key Advocate:
Ibn ʿAbbās (yet again!) - via another chain.
What They Said:
"ركز الناس أصواتهم" ("The concentrating of people's voices.") 👂🔊
The idea is the donkeys are spooked by the noise and commotion of a hunting party.
The most abstract interpretation, focusing on the cause of the fear rather than the object itself.
Key Advocate:
Ibn ʿAbbās (yet again!) - via another chain.
What They Said:
"ركز الناس أصواتهم" ("The concentrating of people's voices.") 👂🔊
The idea is the donkeys are spooked by the noise and commotion of a hunting party.
🦁 Camp 4: The Lion (الأسد)
The powerful, primal interpretation, presented with equally strong credentials.
Key Advocates:
Abū Hurayrah (The prolific Companion) 🐱→🦁
Zayd ibn Aslam (Medinan scholar) 📖
Ibn ʿAbbās (yes, him again!) - in a report where he gives the word for "lion" in multiple languages.
What They Said:
"هو الأسد" ("It is the lion.") 🦁
The powerful, primal interpretation, presented with equally strong credentials.
Key Advocates:
Abū Hurayrah (The prolific Companion) 🐱→🦁
Zayd ibn Aslam (Medinan scholar) 📖
Ibn ʿAbbās (yes, him again!) - in a report where he gives the word for "lion" in multiple languages.
What They Said:
"هو الأسد" ("It is the lion.") 🦁
Al-Ṭabarī's Data in a Nutshell Table 📊
Interpretation Camp Key Advocates Core Argument Emoji Vibe 🏹 Archers/Hunters Ibn Abbas, Mujahid, Ikrimah, Qatadah Direct from root Q-Ṣ-R (to overpower a hunt); most reported opinion. 👨👨👨🎯➡️🐴 👥 Group of Men Ibn Abbas (via another chain) Supported by pre-Islamic poetry; a more general human threat. 🧔🧔🧔💥 📢 Sound of Men Ibn Abbas (via another chain) The cause of the panic is the noise (ركز) of the hunters. 👂🔊🏃♂️ 🦁 The Lion Abu Hurayrah, Zayd ibn Aslam, Ibn Abbas (via another chain) The ultimate "overpowerer" 👑🐅😱
| Interpretation Camp | Key Advocates | Core Argument | Emoji Vibe |
|---|---|---|---|
| 🏹 Archers/Hunters | Ibn Abbas, Mujahid, Ikrimah, Qatadah | Direct from root Q-Ṣ-R (to overpower a hunt); most reported opinion. | 👨👨👨🎯➡️🐴 |
| 👥 Group of Men | Ibn Abbas (via another chain) | Supported by pre-Islamic poetry; a more general human threat. | 🧔🧔🧔💥 |
| 📢 Sound of Men | Ibn Abbas (via another chain) | The cause of the panic is the noise (ركز) of the hunters. | 👂🔊🏃♂️ |
| 🦁 The Lion | Abu Hurayrah, Zayd ibn Aslam, Ibn Abbas (via another chain) | The ultimate "overpowerer" | 👑🐅😱 |
The "Ibn ʿAbbās Paradox" – What Does It Mean? 🤔
The most fascinating figure in this debate is Ibn ʿAbbās. He is cited as the authority for THREE different opinions (Archers, Group of Men, Sound of Men, and the Lion in one report).
This is not a contradiction to be explained away; it is a masterclass in exegesis.
It demonstrates that the early scholars understood the Quran's language as a living, multi-faceted entity. They weren't searching for the one meaning to the exclusion of all others. They were exploring the semantic field of a rich and powerful word. A word could mean:
The actors (the archers) 🏹
The collective (the group) 👥
The sensory trigger (the sound) 📢
The ultimate symbol (the lion) 🦁
Al-Ṭabarī’s work is not a record of confusion, but a treasure chest of valid linguistic and cultural insights. He presents the data, allowing the reader to see the full spectrum of meaning that the first audiences of the Quran might have perceived. The conversation was alive, and the word was big enough to hold it all.
The most fascinating figure in this debate is Ibn ʿAbbās. He is cited as the authority for THREE different opinions (Archers, Group of Men, Sound of Men, and the Lion in one report).
This is not a contradiction to be explained away; it is a masterclass in exegesis.
It demonstrates that the early scholars understood the Quran's language as a living, multi-faceted entity. They weren't searching for the one meaning to the exclusion of all others. They were exploring the semantic field of a rich and powerful word. A word could mean:
The actors (the archers) 🏹
The collective (the group) 👥
The sensory trigger (the sound) 📢
The ultimate symbol (the lion) 🦁
Al-Ṭabarī’s work is not a record of confusion, but a treasure chest of valid linguistic and cultural insights. He presents the data, allowing the reader to see the full spectrum of meaning that the first audiences of the Quran might have perceived. The conversation was alive, and the word was big enough to hold it all.
Section III.II: The Expanding Tapestry – Al-Baghawi & Al-Qurṭubī’s Synthesis
If Al-Ṭabarī’s work is the raw data archive, then the commentaries of Al-Baghawī and Al-Qurṭubī represent the next stage: synthesis, analysis, and the weaving of these diverse opinions into a richer, more intricate tapestry. They don't just list the views; they begin to organize, compare, and reflect on their implications, showing the maturity of the exegetical tradition. 🧵✨
If Al-Ṭabarī’s work is the raw data archive, then the commentaries of Al-Baghawī and Al-Qurṭubī represent the next stage: synthesis, analysis, and the weaving of these diverse opinions into a richer, more intricate tapestry. They don't just list the views; they begin to organize, compare, and reflect on their implications, showing the maturity of the exegetical tradition. 🧵✨
Al-Baghawī: The Concise Synthesizer
Al-Baghawī packs a wealth of opinions into a concise format, adding new, fascinating layers to the debate.
Al-Baghawī packs a wealth of opinions into a concise format, adding new, fascinating layers to the debate.
Al-Baghawī's Opinion Spectrum Table 📋
Interpretation Key Advocates New Nuances from Al-Baghawī Emoji Vibe 🏹 Archers/Hunters Mujahid, Qatādah, al-Ḍaḥḥāk, Ibn Abbas (via ‘Aṭā) Explicitly notes: "لا واحد لها من لفظها" ("It has no singular from its same form"). This is a crucial linguistic point—qaswarah is inherently a collective noun. 👨👨👨🎯 (As a unified group) 🎯 The Hunters (Synonym) Sa’īd ibn Jubayr, Ibn Abbas (via ‘Aṭiyyah) Uses the synonym "القناص" (al-qannāṣ) - "the stalkers/pursuers." 🕵️♂️🌿 💪 Strong Men Zayd ibn Aslam Defines it broadly: "Strong men." Adds the key linguistic rule: "وكل ضخم شديد عند العرب : قسور وقسورة" ("Every huge and intense thing to the Arabs is qaswar or qaswarah"). 🧔⚡🧔 📢 The Sound Abū al-Mutawakkil Specifies it as the "لغط القوم وأصواتهم" – "the clamor and voices of the people." 👂🗣️🔊 🪢 The Ropes! Ibn Abbas (via ‘Ikrimah) A totally new, practical opinion: "حبال الصيادين" – "the ropes of the hunters" (perhaps used for traps or nets). 🪢➡️🐴 🦁 The Lion Abū Hurayrah, ‘Aṭā, al-Kalbī Provides a psychological and contextual link: "The wild donkeys, when they see a lion, flee. Likewise, these polytheists, when they heard the Prophet (ﷺ) recite Quran, fled from him." This directly connects the simile to its real-world application. 🐴👀🦁➡️💨 🌌 The Darkness of Night ‘Ikrimah Introduces a temporal dimension: "هي ظلمة الليل" ("It is the darkness of night"). Explains: "The blackness of the first part of the night is called qaswarah." ⏳🌑
| Interpretation | Key Advocates | New Nuances from Al-Baghawī | Emoji Vibe |
|---|---|---|---|
| 🏹 Archers/Hunters | Mujahid, Qatādah, al-Ḍaḥḥāk, Ibn Abbas (via ‘Aṭā) | Explicitly notes: "لا واحد لها من لفظها" ("It has no singular from its same form"). This is a crucial linguistic point—qaswarah is inherently a collective noun. | 👨👨👨🎯 (As a unified group) |
| 🎯 The Hunters (Synonym) | Sa’īd ibn Jubayr, Ibn Abbas (via ‘Aṭiyyah) | Uses the synonym "القناص" (al-qannāṣ) - "the stalkers/pursuers." | 🕵️♂️🌿 |
| 💪 Strong Men | Zayd ibn Aslam | Defines it broadly: "Strong men." Adds the key linguistic rule: "وكل ضخم شديد عند العرب : قسور وقسورة" ("Every huge and intense thing to the Arabs is qaswar or qaswarah"). | 🧔⚡🧔 |
| 📢 The Sound | Abū al-Mutawakkil | Specifies it as the "لغط القوم وأصواتهم" – "the clamor and voices of the people." | 👂🗣️🔊 |
| 🪢 The Ropes! | Ibn Abbas (via ‘Ikrimah) | A totally new, practical opinion: "حبال الصيادين" – "the ropes of the hunters" (perhaps used for traps or nets). | 🪢➡️🐴 |
| 🦁 The Lion | Abū Hurayrah, ‘Aṭā, al-Kalbī | Provides a psychological and contextual link: "The wild donkeys, when they see a lion, flee. Likewise, these polytheists, when they heard the Prophet (ﷺ) recite Quran, fled from him." This directly connects the simile to its real-world application. | 🐴👀🦁➡️💨 |
| 🌌 The Darkness of Night | ‘Ikrimah | Introduces a temporal dimension: "هي ظلمة الليل" ("It is the darkness of night"). Explains: "The blackness of the first part of the night is called qaswarah." | ⏳🌑 |
Al-Qurṭubī: The Master Jurist-Linguist ⚖️📖
Al-Qurṭubī brings a jurist's precision and a linguist's depth, meticulously sifting through the opinions and highlighting their linguistic foundations.
Al-Qurṭubī brings a jurist's precision and a linguist's depth, meticulously sifting through the opinions and highlighting their linguistic foundations.
Al-Qurṭubī's Detailed Analysis Table 📜
Interpretation Key Advocates & Al-Qurṭubī's Linguistic Notes Emoji Vibe 🏹 Archers/Hunters (The Leading View) A massive list: Sa’īd ibn Jubayr, ‘Ikrimah, Mujahid, Qatādah, al-Ḍaḥḥāk, Ibn Kaysān. Linguistic Note: Quotes the rule: "القسورة الرامي، وجمعه القساورة" ("Al-Qaswarah is the archer, and its plural is al-qasāwirah"). 👨👨👨🎯🏹 🦁 The Lion Abū Hurayrah, Ibn Abbas (in one report). Linguistic Note: Quotes Ibn ‘Arafah: "From al-qasr meaning al-qahr (overpowering), meaning it overpowers the beasts." Provides the clear, natural imagery: "والحمر الوحشية تهرب من السباع" ("And wild donkeys flee from predators"). 👑🐅😨 👥 Group of Men (The Ibn Abbas "Counter-View") Ibn Abbas (in a different report) famously states: "ما أعلم القسورة الأسد في لغة أحد من العرب" ("I do not know al-qaswarah to mean 'lion' in the language of any Arab"). He insists it means "a group of men" and cites pre-Islamic poetry as proof. 🧔🧔🧔📜 📢 The Sound Ibn Abbas (again): "ركز الناس" – "the concentrating of people's voices/sounds." 👂🔊 🪢 The Ropes Ibn Abbas (yet again): "حبال الصيادين" – "the ropes of the hunters." 🪢⛓️ 🌌 The Darkness of Night Ibn al-A’rābī, ‘Ikrimah. Nuance: "أول سواد الليل" ("The first blackness of night") and specifies this term is not used for the end of the night. 🌑➡️🌃 💪 Strong Men Zayd ibn Aslam. Reiterates the broad semantic rule: "وكل شديد عند العرب فهو قسورة" ("Every intense thing to the Arabs is a qaswarah"). 🧔⚡
| Interpretation | Key Advocates & Al-Qurṭubī's Linguistic Notes | Emoji Vibe |
|---|---|---|
| 🏹 Archers/Hunters (The Leading View) | A massive list: Sa’īd ibn Jubayr, ‘Ikrimah, Mujahid, Qatādah, al-Ḍaḥḥāk, Ibn Kaysān. Linguistic Note: Quotes the rule: "القسورة الرامي، وجمعه القساورة" ("Al-Qaswarah is the archer, and its plural is al-qasāwirah"). | 👨👨👨🎯🏹 |
| 🦁 The Lion | Abū Hurayrah, Ibn Abbas (in one report). Linguistic Note: Quotes Ibn ‘Arafah: "From al-qasr meaning al-qahr (overpowering), meaning it overpowers the beasts." Provides the clear, natural imagery: "والحمر الوحشية تهرب من السباع" ("And wild donkeys flee from predators"). | 👑🐅😨 |
| 👥 Group of Men (The Ibn Abbas "Counter-View") | Ibn Abbas (in a different report) famously states: "ما أعلم القسورة الأسد في لغة أحد من العرب" ("I do not know al-qaswarah to mean 'lion' in the language of any Arab"). He insists it means "a group of men" and cites pre-Islamic poetry as proof. | 🧔🧔🧔📜 |
| 📢 The Sound | Ibn Abbas (again): "ركز الناس" – "the concentrating of people's voices/sounds." | 👂🔊 |
| 🪢 The Ropes | Ibn Abbas (yet again): "حبال الصيادين" – "the ropes of the hunters." | 🪢⛓️ |
| 🌌 The Darkness of Night | Ibn al-A’rābī, ‘Ikrimah. Nuance: "أول سواد الليل" ("The first blackness of night") and specifies this term is not used for the end of the night. | 🌑➡️🌃 |
| 💪 Strong Men | Zayd ibn Aslam. Reiterates the broad semantic rule: "وكل شديد عند العرب فهو قسورة" ("Every intense thing to the Arabs is a qaswarah"). | 🧔⚡ |
Synthesis: Why This "Chaos" is Actually Coherent 🎭➡️🎨
The lists of Al-Baghawī and Al-Qurṭubī might seem like an overwhelming pile of contradictions. But to the trained eye, they reveal a stunning semantic coherence.
The Core is "Overpowering Force": Every single opinion orbits the root ق س ر (Q-Ṣ-R) — "to overpower."
🏹 Archers overpower with arrows.
🦁 The Lion is the embodiment of overpowering force.
👥 A Group of Men overpowers through numbers.
📢 The Sound overpowers the senses.
🌌 The Night overpowers with its darkness.
Ibn Abbas Was Exploring, Not Contradicting: The fact that Ibn Abbas is cited for "Archers," "Group," "Sound," "Ropes," and "Lion" doesn't mean he was confused. It demonstrates that he, as a master exegete, was demonstrating the vast semantic field of the Quran's vocabulary. He was showing his students: "Look, this word can encompass all these related ideas."
The Choice is Rhetorical, Not Just Lexical: The job of the mufassir was not to pick one meaning and annihilate the others. It was to present the range and, when appropriate, suggest which meaning delivers the most powerful impact in the verse's context.
Both Al-Baghawī and Al-Qurṭubī, by listing the "Lion" opinion with its clear, natural analogy, subtly acknowledge its rhetorical power in completing the simile of primal, instinctual flight. 🐴💨➡️🦁
Section III.III: Ibn Kathīr – The Final Arbiter of Rhetorical Power ⚖️🦁
The lists of Al-Baghawī and Al-Qurṭubī might seem like an overwhelming pile of contradictions. But to the trained eye, they reveal a stunning semantic coherence.
The Core is "Overpowering Force": Every single opinion orbits the root ق س ر (Q-Ṣ-R) — "to overpower."
🏹 Archers overpower with arrows.
🦁 The Lion is the embodiment of overpowering force.
👥 A Group of Men overpowers through numbers.
📢 The Sound overpowers the senses.
🌌 The Night overpowers with its darkness.
Ibn Abbas Was Exploring, Not Contradicting: The fact that Ibn Abbas is cited for "Archers," "Group," "Sound," "Ropes," and "Lion" doesn't mean he was confused. It demonstrates that he, as a master exegete, was demonstrating the vast semantic field of the Quran's vocabulary. He was showing his students: "Look, this word can encompass all these related ideas."
The Choice is Rhetorical, Not Just Lexical: The job of the mufassir was not to pick one meaning and annihilate the others. It was to present the range and, when appropriate, suggest which meaning delivers the most powerful impact in the verse's context.
Both Al-Baghawī and Al-Qurṭubī, by listing the "Lion" opinion with its clear, natural analogy, subtly acknowledge its rhetorical power in completing the simile of primal, instinctual flight. 🐴💨➡️🦁
Imam Ibn Kathīr represents a pivotal moment in the exegetical tradition. While he respects and records the diversity of opinions, his methodology leans towards synthesizing them and identifying the interpretation that carries the most powerful contextual and rhetorical weight. He is less interested in merely cataloging views and more in discerning which one fits the Divine discourse most perfectly.
Imam Ibn Kathīr represents a pivotal moment in the exegetical tradition. While he respects and records the diversity of opinions, his methodology leans towards synthesizing them and identifying the interpretation that carries the most powerful contextual and rhetorical weight. He is less interested in merely cataloging views and more in discerning which one fits the Divine discourse most perfectly.
Ibn Kathīr's Tafsīr: A Masterclass in Contextual Resolution
Ibn Kathīr does not get lost in the labyrinth of opinions. Instead, he masterfully narrows the field and makes a decisive argument for why one interpretation ultimately triumphs.
Ibn Kathīr does not get lost in the labyrinth of opinions. Instead, he masterfully narrows the field and makes a decisive argument for why one interpretation ultimately triumphs.
Ibn Kathīr's Two-Tiered Analysis 🎯
Tier 1: Acknowledging the Two Main Camps
He begins by succinctly presenting the two primary contenders, showing he is aware of the full debate:
🦁 The Lion ("Asad"): He attributes this to:
Abū Hurayrah
Ibn ʿAbbās (in one report)
Zayd ibn Aslam and his son, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān
🏹 The Archer/Ramī ("The Opinion of the Majority - al-Jumhūr"): He notes this is the other prominent view, also attributed to Ibn ʿAbbās in another report.
Tier 2: The Rhetorical Knockout Punch 🥊
This is where Ibn Kathīr's genius shines. He doesn't just list the "Lion" opinion; he embeds it within the core meaning of the verse, making it inseparable from the Quran's intended message.
"كأنهم في نفارهم عن الحق ، وإعراضهم عنه حمر من حمر الوحش إذا فرت ممن يريد صيدها من أسد""As if they, in their bolting from the Truth and turning away from it, are like donkeys from the wild donkeys when they flee from one who wants to hunt them from among lions..."
Let's break down why this is a masterstroke:
He Synthesizes, Doesn't Just Select: Notice his phrasing: "فرت ممن يريد صيدها من أسد" ("flee from one who wants to hunt them from among lions"). This is brilliant. He subtly incorporates the concept of the "hunter" (satisfying the qannāṣ opinion) but identifies the most terrifying form that hunter can take: THE LION. 🏹❌ → 🦁✅
He Prioritizes the Natural Analogy: Ibn Kathīr instinctively understands that for the simile to have its maximum rhetorical force, the object of fear must be the most natural, primal, and instinctual predator of the onager. A lion elicits a level of panic that a human hunter simply cannot.
He Focuses on the Core Sin: He frames the entire simile around the disbelievers' "نفارهم عن الحق" ("their bolting from the Truth"). The image of an onager bolting from a lion is the perfect, unthinking, instinctual parallel to this spiritual flaw.
Tier 1: Acknowledging the Two Main Camps
He begins by succinctly presenting the two primary contenders, showing he is aware of the full debate:
🦁 The Lion ("Asad"): He attributes this to:
Abū Hurayrah
Ibn ʿAbbās (in one report)
Zayd ibn Aslam and his son, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān
🏹 The Archer/Ramī ("The Opinion of the Majority - al-Jumhūr"): He notes this is the other prominent view, also attributed to Ibn ʿAbbās in another report.
Tier 2: The Rhetorical Knockout Punch 🥊
This is where Ibn Kathīr's genius shines. He doesn't just list the "Lion" opinion; he embeds it within the core meaning of the verse, making it inseparable from the Quran's intended message.
"كأنهم في نفارهم عن الحق ، وإعراضهم عنه حمر من حمر الوحش إذا فرت ممن يريد صيدها من أسد""As if they, in their bolting from the Truth and turning away from it, are like donkeys from the wild donkeys when they flee from one who wants to hunt them from among lions..."
Let's break down why this is a masterstroke:
He Synthesizes, Doesn't Just Select: Notice his phrasing: "فرت ممن يريد صيدها من أسد" ("flee from one who wants to hunt them from among lions"). This is brilliant. He subtly incorporates the concept of the "hunter" (satisfying the qannāṣ opinion) but identifies the most terrifying form that hunter can take: THE LION. 🏹❌ → 🦁✅
He Prioritizes the Natural Analogy: Ibn Kathīr instinctively understands that for the simile to have its maximum rhetorical force, the object of fear must be the most natural, primal, and instinctual predator of the onager. A lion elicits a level of panic that a human hunter simply cannot.
He Focuses on the Core Sin: He frames the entire simile around the disbelievers' "نفارهم عن الحق" ("their bolting from the Truth"). The image of an onager bolting from a lion is the perfect, unthinking, instinctual parallel to this spiritual flaw.
Ibn Kathīr's Verdict in a Nutshell 🏁
Aspect Ibn Kathīr's Position Why It Matters Primary Meaning The Lion (الأسد) 🦁 It provides the most potent and natural completion of the "startled onager" simile. The "Majority" Opinion Acknowledges the "Archer" view exists but subordinates it. Shows he has considered the alternatives but finds them less compelling in this specific context. Methodology Contextual and Rhetorical Analysis 🎭 He chooses the meaning that makes the Quran's intended lesson most powerful and clear
Conclusion: For Ibn Kathīr, the exegetical journey through the chains of transmission and lexical meanings culminates in a clear, defensible, and powerful conclusion. The qaswarah is the Lion. It is the interpretation that best captures the primal, irrational terror the disbelievers have for the Quran, thereby highlighting the supreme irony that they lack all terror for the true object of fear—the Hereafter. His tafsīr is the bridge from scholarly debate to spiritual insight. 🌉
| Aspect | Ibn Kathīr's Position | Why It Matters |
|---|---|---|
| Primary Meaning | The Lion (الأسد) 🦁 | It provides the most potent and natural completion of the "startled onager" simile. |
| The "Majority" Opinion | Acknowledges the "Archer" view exists but subordinates it. | Shows he has considered the alternatives but finds them less compelling in this specific context. |
| Methodology | Contextual and Rhetorical Analysis 🎭 | He chooses the meaning that makes the Quran's intended lesson most powerful and clear |
Section IV: The Coherence Test – Why the Lion is the Victor 🏆
When we subject the competing interpretations to the ultimate test—coherence with the Quran's immediate context, flawless logic, and profound spiritual lesson—the "Lion" interpretation doesn't just win; it achieves a rhetorical knockout. The "Archer" theory, while linguistically possible, collapses under the weight of its own logistical and metaphorical inconsistencies.
When we subject the competing interpretations to the ultimate test—coherence with the Quran's immediate context, flawless logic, and profound spiritual lesson—the "Lion" interpretation doesn't just win; it achieves a rhetorical knockout. The "Archer" theory, while linguistically possible, collapses under the weight of its own logistical and metaphorical inconsistencies.
The Fatal Flaw of the "Archers" Interpretation: A Tactical Nightmare 🤦♂️🎯
Let's visualize the scene if Qaswarah means "Archers":
The Scene: A herd of Asiatic onagers (🐴🐴🐴) detects a band of archers (👨👨👨🏹).
The Sequence of Events:
Onagers See Archers: 🐴 👀 👨👨👨🏹
Instinctual Panic: "مُسْتَنفِرَةٌ" - They are spooked, startled, and bolt. 🐴💨
The Fatal Error: They turn and flee in a straight line, presenting their broadside. 🐴➡️💨
The Result:
Archer 1: "Sir, the targets are fleeing!"Archer 2: "Excellent! They're giving us perfect shooting practice!" 🎯🎯🎯Result: Dead donkeys. 💀💀💀
The Metaphorical Logic Collapses:
In the Simile: The onagers' flight is presented as a natural, instinctual response to a threat.
In Reality: Their specific flight response (فرت) would be a suicidal tactical error against archers.
The Contradiction: The Quran uses this as a cogent analogy, but the analogy becomes incoherent if the action is literally self-destructive.
Let's visualize the scene if Qaswarah means "Archers":
The Scene: A herd of Asiatic onagers (🐴🐴🐴) detects a band of archers (👨👨👨🏹).
The Sequence of Events:
Onagers See Archers: 🐴 👀 👨👨👨🏹
Instinctual Panic: "مُسْتَنفِرَةٌ" - They are spooked, startled, and bolt. 🐴💨
The Fatal Error: They turn and flee in a straight line, presenting their broadside. 🐴➡️💨
The Result:
Archer 1: "Sir, the targets are fleeing!"Archer 2: "Excellent! They're giving us perfect shooting practice!" 🎯🎯🎯Result: Dead donkeys. 💀💀💀
The Metaphorical Logic Collapses:
In the Simile: The onagers' flight is presented as a natural, instinctual response to a threat.
In Reality: Their specific flight response (فرت) would be a suicidal tactical error against archers.
The Contradiction: The Quran uses this as a cogent analogy, but the analogy becomes incoherent if the action is literally self-destructive.
The Flawless Logic of the "Lion" Interpretation ✅🦁
Now, let's visualize the scene with the Lion:
The Scene: A herd of onagers (🐴🐴🐴) detects a lion (🦁).
The Sequence of Events:
Onagers Smell/See Lion: 🐴 👃 👀 🦁
Primal, Instinctual Panic: "مُسْتَنفِرَةٌ" - Pure, unthinking terror. System override. 😱
The Correct Survival Move: They turn and flee directly away from the source of the threat. 🐴💨⬅️🦁
The Result:
A clean, logical, and universally understood survival instinct. The metaphor holds perfectly.
Now, let's visualize the scene with the Lion:
The Scene: A herd of onagers (🐴🐴🐴) detects a lion (🦁).
The Sequence of Events:
Onagers Smell/See Lion: 🐴 👃 👀 🦁
Primal, Instinctual Panic: "مُسْتَنفِرَةٌ" - Pure, unthinking terror. System override. 😱
The Correct Survival Move: They turn and flee directly away from the source of the threat. 🐴💨⬅️🦁
The Result:
A clean, logical, and universally understood survival instinct. The metaphor holds perfectly.
The Coherence Comparison Table 📊
Aspect With 🏹 Archers With 🦁 The Lion Panic Response Illogical. Fleeing makes them easier targets. ❌ Perfectly logical. Fleeing is the only survival option. ✅ Type of Threat An intelligent, ranged threat. A primal, close-quarters, apex predator. Metaphorical Fit Weak. The disbelievers' fear of the Quran is not like a prey animal foolishly running into arrow-fire. Powerful. The disbelievers' irrational, visceral fear of the Quran is exactly like a prey animal's terror of an apex predator. Connection to الآخرة (Akhirah) Clunky. How are "archers" a metaphor for the Hereafter? Potent. The "Lion" is the perfect, majestic, and terrifying metaphor for the ultimate overpowering reality of the Hereafter (☠️) that they should fear.
| Aspect | With 🏹 Archers | With 🦁 The Lion |
|---|---|---|
| Panic Response | Illogical. Fleeing makes them easier targets. ❌ | Perfectly logical. Fleeing is the only survival option. ✅ |
| Type of Threat | An intelligent, ranged threat. | A primal, close-quarters, apex predator. |
| Metaphorical Fit | Weak. The disbelievers' fear of the Quran is not like a prey animal foolishly running into arrow-fire. | Powerful. The disbelievers' irrational, visceral fear of the Quran is exactly like a prey animal's terror of an apex predator. |
| Connection to الآخرة (Akhirah) | Clunky. How are "archers" a metaphor for the Hereafter? | Potent. The "Lion" is the perfect, majestic, and terrifying metaphor for the ultimate overpowering reality of the Hereafter (☠️) that they should fear. |
The Ultimate Punchline: The Ironic Twist 😏🎭
The Quran's rhetorical masterpiece is in the ironic contrast between the simile and the reality revealed in verse 53.
The Divine Punchline, Decoded:
You (disbelievers) are like onagers...
...fleeing in terror from a LION (the Quran)... 🐴💨⬅️🦁
...but the REAL LION (the Hereafter)... ☠️
...is the one you should be fearing, and you don't! 😱➡️😐
The "Lion" interpretation completes this circle with poetic perfection. The "Archers" interpretation breaks the chain. You cannot replace "Lion" with "Archers" and maintain the same sublime, ironic power.
The "Lion" isn't just a valid opinion—it is the key that unlocks the entire verse's profound meaning. It transforms the verse from a simple analogy into a devastating critique of misplaced human priorities. The coherence of the Quran demands it.
The Quran's rhetorical masterpiece is in the ironic contrast between the simile and the reality revealed in verse 53.
The Divine Punchline, Decoded:
You (disbelievers) are like onagers...
...fleeing in terror from a LION (the Quran)... 🐴💨⬅️🦁
...but the REAL LION (the Hereafter)... ☠️
...is the one you should be fearing, and you don't! 😱➡️😐
The "Lion" interpretation completes this circle with poetic perfection. The "Archers" interpretation breaks the chain. You cannot replace "Lion" with "Archers" and maintain the same sublime, ironic power.
The "Lion" isn't just a valid opinion—it is the key that unlocks the entire verse's profound meaning. It transforms the verse from a simple analogy into a devastating critique of misplaced human priorities. The coherence of the Quran demands it.
Section V: The Zoological Arsenal – Why the Onager and the Lion?
The Quran’s choice of the onager (ḥimār al-waḥsh) and the lion (qaswarah) is not a random selection from the Arabian bestiary. It is a deliberate, masterful deployment of two animals that occupied powerful and contrasting symbolic spaces in the Bedouin consciousness. God speaks to people in the language of their lived reality, using the most potent symbols available to sear a spiritual truth into their minds. The onager and the lion were not just animals; they were archetypes.
As noted by Sara Tlili and other scholars, the fauna of the Quran is distinctly Arabian, reflecting the ecosystem and cultural milieu of its revelation. Within this ecosystem, the onager and the lion held particular significance.
Section V.I: The Onager (Ḥimār al-Waḥsh) – The Untamable Spirit of the Desert 🐴
The onager was far more than just a wild donkey; it was a powerful, living symbol deeply embedded in the Arabian psyche. To understand the Quran's simile is to understand the complex cultural portrait of this animal, a portrait painted in vivid detail by the lexicographers and poets of the era.
1. The Physical Specimen: A Desert Powerhouse 💪
The Asiatic onager (Equus hemionus hemippus) was a creature built for survival in the harshest environments:
Size & Strength: Weighing up to 660 lbs (300 kg) and measuring over 6 feet (2 meters) in length, it was a substantial and powerful animal.
Blazing Speed: Capable of reaching speeds of 37 mph (60 km/h), it was one of the desert's fastest land animals, making it incredibly difficult to catch. 🏃♂️💨
This raw physical potential is the first layer of the metaphor: the disbelievers, like the onager, possessed immense strength and potential, which they were squandering.
2. The Lexicon of the Wild: Al-Aṣmaʿī's "Book of Beasts" 📖
The Abbasid linguist Al-Aṣmaʿī's work provides a glossary of terms that reveal how Arabs perceived the onager's characteristics. This wasn't just zoology; it was a catalog of symbolic traits.
The Onager in Arabic Lexicon Table
| Arabic Term | Meaning & Description | Symbolic Implication | Emoji |
|---|---|---|---|
| الجاب (Al-Jāb) | The thick, sturdy, and coarse onager. | Raw, unrefined power. Stubborn strength. | 💪 |
| المسحل (Al-Masḥal) | A hard, calloused onager (from sahala - to be hard). | Toughness and resilience. Hardened by the desert, difficult to break. | 🏜️ |
| العلج (Al-ʿAlaj) | The thick, coarse, and rough one. | Unyielding, crude nature. Lacking sophistication, governed by base instincts. | 🤬 |
| الكندر (Al-Kundur) | The stout, thick-set, and sturdy one. | Dense, formidable presence. A force to be reckoned with, but clumsy. | 🧱 |
| النحوص (Al-Naḥūṣ) | The female onager that is barren or fails to conceive. | Unproductivity. Wasted potential. Strength that yields no fruit. | ❌ |
| المصلصل (Al-Muṣliṣil) | The one who brays loudly and frequently. | Loud, empty noise. Panic and alarm without substance. | 📢 |
This lexicon paints a picture of an animal that is powerful, tough, and loud, but also unrefined, stubborn, and ultimately unproductive. Its strength is not harnessed; it is wild and often wasted.
3. The Poetic Paradox: Prized Prey & Panicked Fool 🎭
Pre-Islamic poetry, as noted by Tlili and Montgomery, solidifies this paradoxical image.
The Prized Quarry: The onager was a vital resource. Hunting it was an act of necessity, often for a "starving family." This highlights its value and desirability. Its meat and hide were worth the immense effort required to catch it.
The Elusive Phantom: Its legendary speed and skittishness made it a formidable challenge. It was not easily taken. This represents the elusive nature of truth for those who foolishly run from it.
The Panicked Fool: The poetry also captures its comical side. Al-Aṣmaʿī cites a line describing its braying and alarm: "كَعَدْو المصلصِلِ الجوال" - "Like the running of the loudly braying, wandering one." The image is of a creature in constant, noisy, undignified flight.
The Paradox Summarized:
| Aspect | Description | Metaphor for the Disbeliever |
|---|---|---|
| Strength & Speed 💨 | Powerful, fast, resilient. | Possesses the intellectual and spiritual capacity to accept the truth. |
| Skittishness & Noise 📢 | Panicky, easily spooked, loud. | Irrational fear of divine guidance, creating a clamor of rejection. |
| Value & Elusiveness 🎯 | A prized but hard-to-catch resource. | The truth is valuable but seems elusive because they are running away from it. |
Synthesis: Why the Onager is the Perfect Metaphor
The Quran's genius is in selecting an animal that embodies a devastating contradiction. The disbelievers are not compared to a weak animal; they are compared to a creature of legendary potential.
The divine argument is: You are not weaklings. You are like the mighty onager—endowed with strength, speed, and resilience (الجاب, الكندر). Yet, you are squandering this divine gift. You are using your strength to flee, your speed to run in the wrong direction, and your voice to bray in panic (المصلصل). Your toughness (المسحل) only makes you more stubborn in your error. You are a creature of immense value, acting like a skittish fool.
This makes the critique not just an accusation of error, but a tragic indictment of wasted potential. The onager isn't just scared; it is a powerful being behaving in a pathetically fearful way. So too were the disbelievers: powerful, intelligent humans using their God-given faculties to flee from the very source of all power and intelligence.
Section V.II: The Lion (Al-Asad / Al-Qaswarah) – The Apex Symbol of Sovereign Power 🦁
If the onager represented untamed potential, the lion represented absolute, sovereign authority. Its presence in the Arabian cultural imagination was monumental, far exceeding its physical presence in the desert. It was less a mere animal and more a living archetype of power, a fact immortalized in its 500+ Arabic names and its use in the most powerful dynastic name in Islamic history: Al-'Abbas (The Lion 🦁➡️👑), from which the Abbasid Caliphate took its name.
1. The Lexicon of Kings: Al-Aṣmaʿī's "Book of Beasts" on the Lion 📜
Al-Aṣmaʿī's glossary for the lion is a thesaurus of power, each name highlighting a different facet of its terrifying majesty.
The Lion in Arabic Lexicon Table
| Arabic Name | Meaning & Description | Symbolic Implication | Emoji |
|---|---|---|---|
| الضِرْغَامَة (Al-Ḍirghāmah) | The mighty, overpowering lion. | Sheer, overwhelming force. The essence of unstoppable power. | 💥 |
| اللَّيْث (Al-Layth) | A classical, potent name for lion. | Noble, recognized authority. The king in his prime. | 👑 |
| الضَّيْغَمِي (Al-Ḍayghamī) | The one who seizes and crushes violently. | Destructive, crushing power. The finality of its attack. | 🦷⤵️ |
| الْهَرْمَاس (Al-Harmās) | The crusher, the grinder (from harasa - to crush). | Utter domination. The ability to reduce opposition to nothing. | 🗿 |
| الْغَضَنْفَر (Al-Ghaḍanfar) | The thick-necked, the immense, the formidable. | Sheer physical imposingness. Awe-inspiring presence and strength. | 🦍 |
| الْقَسْوَر (Al-Qaswar) | The intense, the severe, the mighty. | Focused, potent force. The root of our Quranic word, meaning "The Overpowerer." | 🎯 |
| الْعَنْبَس (Al-'Anbas) | The scowler, the grim-faced, the fierce. | Majestic, terrifying anger. The source of the name Al-'Abbās. | 😠 |
| الْمُحَرِّب (Al-Muḥarrib) | The one who brings war, the devastator. | Unleashed, destructive fury. An active, campaigning threat. | ⚔️ |
| الرَّئْبَال (Al-Ra'bal) | The terrifying, the dreadful. | Primal, instinctual fear. The aura of terror it projects. | 😨 |
This lexicon does not describe a simple predator; it describes a force of nature. The names are verbs of destruction: crushing, seizing, scowing, devastating.
2. The Poetic Persona: The Unchallenged Sovereign 🏛️
The poetry cited by Al-Aṣmaʿī places the lion in its natural kingdom, depicting it as a ruling sovereign.
The King in His Court:
"أَسَدٌ في غِيْلِهِ" - "A lion in its thicket..."The ghayl (dense wood/thicket) is its عرين ('arin) - its fortress, its throne room. It does not merely live somewhere; it rules a domain.- The Justified Panic:The poets understood the natural order. The onager's flight from a lion was not cowardice; it was the only rational response to an existential threat. This is key to the Quran's metaphor: the disbelievers' type of fear (primal, fleeing) is correct, but its object (the Quran) is misplaced.
Synthesis: The Perfect Metaphorical Antithesis ⚖️
The Quran's rhetorical mastery is in pitting these two perfect opposites against each other.
| Trait | The Onager (Disbeliever) 🐴 | The Lion (The True Threat) 🦁 |
|---|---|---|
| Power | Wasted Potential 💪➡️💨 | Sovereign Authority 👑 |
| Nature | Skittish, Panicky 😨 | Composed, Terrifying 😠 |
| Action | Flees Irrationally 🏃♂️💨 | Inspires Justified Fear 😰 |
| State | Wild, Undisciplined 🌪️ | Regal, Imposing 🏛️ |
| Sound | Panicked Braying 📢 | Silent Scowl (Al-'Abbās) 🤫 |
The Divine Argument, Perfected:
Allah tells the disbelievers:
"You are like the Onager." You have the strength and speed (intellect, spirit) to face the truth, but you waste it in undignified, irrational panic.
"You are fleeing from a Qaswarah." You are acting as if you've encountered the ultimate overpowering force, the Lion—the crusher (الْهَرْمَاس), the devastator (الْمُحَرِّب), the sovereign (اللَّيْث).
"But you've got the wrong lion." The thing you're treating with this level of terror is divine guidance—which is mercy. Your panic is not just foolish; it's a catastrophic misidentification.
"The real Lion is the Hereafter." The true الضَّيْغَمِي (Crusher) and الرَّئْبَال (Terrifier) that you should fear is the punishment of the Akhirah, which you ignore.
By using the lion, the Quran doesn't just say "you are wrong." It says, "You are showing the respect due to an emperor to the wrong ruler, while insulting the true King." The choice of the lion elevates the entire verse, transforming a simple simile into a profound commentary on misplaced worship and spiritual priority.
Section V.III: The Quran's Rhetorical Masterstroke – A Divine Intervention in the Meccan Mindset 🎯
To understand the full impact of these verses, we must step into the cultural and psychological world of 7th-century Mecca. The Quran was not revealed in a vacuum; it was a direct, transformative address to a specific audience with a deeply ingrained set of values, fears, and symbols. The choice of the onager and the lion was a deliberate, surgical strike on the core of the Meccan pagan identity.
The Meccan Psyche: A Culture of Tribal Pride and Earthly Power
The Meccan leadership, whom this passage critiques, were defined by:
"Asabiyyah" (Tribal Arrogance): Their identity was rooted in tribal strength, independence, and a fierce refusal to be subjugated. They prided themselves on being "unbroken," like the wild onager.
Worldly Pragmatism: Their fears were immediate and tangible—famine, tribal warfare, loss of trade, social status. The concept of an unseen, ultimate accountability (the Akhirah) seemed abstract and foolish against the "real" concerns of power and survival.
The Economics of Power: Mecca was a commercial and religious hub. The Quranic message threatened the socio-economic system built around the Ka'bah's idols. Accepting it felt like an act of surrender, of being "tamed."
"Asabiyyah" (Tribal Arrogance): Their identity was rooted in tribal strength, independence, and a fierce refusal to be subjugated. They prided themselves on being "unbroken," like the wild onager.
Worldly Pragmatism: Their fears were immediate and tangible—famine, tribal warfare, loss of trade, social status. The concept of an unseen, ultimate accountability (the Akhirah) seemed abstract and foolish against the "real" concerns of power and survival.
The Economics of Power: Mecca was a commercial and religious hub. The Quranic message threatened the socio-economic system built around the Ka'bah's idols. Accepting it felt like an act of surrender, of being "tamed."
The Subversion of Meccan Symbols ⚔️
The Quran masterfully takes the two animals that best embodied the Meccans' self-image and their understanding of power, and completely inverts their meaning.
The Onager Subversion: You Are Not Noble, You Are Skittish Fools 🤦♂️
The Meccan elite saw themselves as the majestic, untamable onager—proud, free, and powerful.
What the Meccans Thought What the Quran Reveals "We are the الجاب (Al-Jāb) – the strong, untamable leaders." 💪 "Your strength is wasted. You are the المسحل (Al-Masḥal) – calloused and hard-hearted, and the المصلصل (Al-Muṣliṣil) – making a lot of panicked noise." 📢 "Our independence is our glory." 🏜️ "Your 'freedom' is a mindless flight from your Creator. You are not free; you are enslaved by your own base instincts and fear of social pressure." 🏃♂️💨 "We are pragmatic survivors." 🎯 "You are the most impractical of creatures, fleeing from the source of all survival toward your own destruction."
The Divine Insult: The Quran tells the proud Quraysh that they are not the noble, strategic leaders they believe themselves to be. They are, in fact, behaving like the most foolish version of the onager—spooked, irrational, and wasting their God-given strength on a suicidal panic.
The Meccan elite saw themselves as the majestic, untamable onager—proud, free, and powerful.
| What the Meccans Thought | What the Quran Reveals |
|---|---|
| "We are the الجاب (Al-Jāb) – the strong, untamable leaders." 💪 | "Your strength is wasted. You are the المسحل (Al-Masḥal) – calloused and hard-hearted, and the المصلصل (Al-Muṣliṣil) – making a lot of panicked noise." 📢 |
| "Our independence is our glory." 🏜️ | "Your 'freedom' is a mindless flight from your Creator. You are not free; you are enslaved by your own base instincts and fear of social pressure." 🏃♂️💨 |
| "We are pragmatic survivors." 🎯 | "You are the most impractical of creatures, fleeing from the source of all survival toward your own destruction." |
The Divine Insult: The Quran tells the proud Quraysh that they are not the noble, strategic leaders they believe themselves to be. They are, in fact, behaving like the most foolish version of the onager—spooked, irrational, and wasting their God-given strength on a suicidal panic.
The Lion Subversion: You Fear the Wrong King 👑
The Meccans understood power in a tangible, immediate sense. They feared military defeat, economic collapse, and loss of status. The lion represented this kind of raw, earthly, dominating power.
What the Meccans Feared What the Quran Reveals Earthly threats to their power and wealth. (Other tribes, economic ruin). "You are showing the appropriate level of terror for a lion... but you're directing it at my Mercy (the Quran)." The "Lion" was a metaphor for a powerful enemy tribe or a harsh ruler. "The message of Tawhid is not your enemy. It is your salvation. You are screaming and running from your only doctor." 🩺 They ignored the Akhirah because it wasn't a "real" or immediate threat. "The REAL Lion is not of this world. It is the Akhirah—the ultimate الضيغم (Crusher) and الرئبال (Terrifier) that you dismiss." ☠️
The Divine Reorientation: The Quran accepts the Meccans' own definition of a legitimate threat (the Lion) but redefines its identity. It says, "Your instincts about what deserves terror are correct. But your perception is utterly bankrupt. You are terrified of a shadow while walking blindly off a cliff."
| What the Meccans Feared | What the Quran Reveals |
|---|---|
| Earthly threats to their power and wealth. (Other tribes, economic ruin). | "You are showing the appropriate level of terror for a lion... but you're directing it at my Mercy (the Quran)." |
| The "Lion" was a metaphor for a powerful enemy tribe or a harsh ruler. | "The message of Tawhid is not your enemy. It is your salvation. You are screaming and running from your only doctor." 🩺 |
| They ignored the Akhirah because it wasn't a "real" or immediate threat. | "The REAL Lion is not of this world. It is the Akhirah—the ultimate الضيغم (Crusher) and الرئبال (Terrifier) that you dismiss." ☠️ |
The Complete Psychological Argument
The sequence of verses (49-53) is a devastating rhetorical one-two punch, designed to dismantle the Meccan worldview from the inside.
Verse 49-51: The Setup (Using Their Logic):
"You are acting like onagers fleeing from a lion." The Meccan listener nods. This makes sense. This is a logical, strong reaction. Of course you run from a lion.
Verse 52: The First Twist (Exposing their Arrogance):
"No! The truth is, you are just arrogant. You want scripture delivered on your terms." This attacks the "onager's" pride, revealing the self-importance behind the rejection.
Verse 53: The Knockout Punch (Revealing their Folly):
"No! The real problem is you don't fear the Hereafter." This is the climax. It redefines the entire simile. "The 'Lion' you should be fearing is the one you're ignoring. The one you're fleeing from is your only hope."
The sequence of verses (49-53) is a devastating rhetorical one-two punch, designed to dismantle the Meccan worldview from the inside.
Verse 49-51: The Setup (Using Their Logic):
"You are acting like onagers fleeing from a lion." The Meccan listener nods. This makes sense. This is a logical, strong reaction. Of course you run from a lion.
Verse 52: The First Twist (Exposing their Arrogance):
"No! The truth is, you are just arrogant. You want scripture delivered on your terms." This attacks the "onager's" pride, revealing the self-importance behind the rejection.
Verse 53: The Knockout Punch (Revealing their Folly):
"No! The real problem is you don't fear the Hereafter." This is the climax. It redefines the entire simile. "The 'Lion' you should be fearing is the one you're ignoring. The one you're fleeing from is your only hope."
Conclusion: The Ultimate "I'jaz" (Inimitability)
This is not mere poetry. This is divine psychoanalysis and social commentary of the highest order. The Quran:
Diagnoses the Meccan condition with pinpoint accuracy.
Uses their own most potent cultural symbols as the diagnostic tools.
Subverts those symbols to reveal a shocking spiritual truth.
Offers a complete reorientation of fear, power, and purpose.
The choice of the onager and the lion was, therefore, perfect, deliberate, and devastatingly effective. It was a message that could not be ignored, because it used the very language of the audience's soul to call that soul to account. It was a mirror held up to 7th-century Mecca, and it remains a mirror for every human soul that prioritizes worldly "lions" over the ultimate reality of the Divine.
This is not mere poetry. This is divine psychoanalysis and social commentary of the highest order. The Quran:
Diagnoses the Meccan condition with pinpoint accuracy.
Uses their own most potent cultural symbols as the diagnostic tools.
Subverts those symbols to reveal a shocking spiritual truth.
Offers a complete reorientation of fear, power, and purpose.
The choice of the onager and the lion was, therefore, perfect, deliberate, and devastatingly effective. It was a message that could not be ignored, because it used the very language of the audience's soul to call that soul to account. It was a mirror held up to 7th-century Mecca, and it remains a mirror for every human soul that prioritizes worldly "lions" over the ultimate reality of the Divine.
Conclusion: The Echo of the Roar – A Timeless Lesson in Priorities
Our journey through the dense thicket of classical tafsīr, the intricate pathways of Semitic etymology, and the vast cultural landscape of pre-Islamic Arabia leads us to an undeniable and powerful conclusion. The debate over the word qaswarah is far more than a scholarly curiosity; it is a key that unlocks one of the Quran's most brilliantly crafted arguments.
The "Lion" interpretation is not merely one option among many. It is the only interpretation that fully coheres with the Quran's immediate syntax, its profound rhetorical structure, and its penetrating psychological insight. The image of the mighty, skittish onager fleeing in justified terror from the ultimate predator is the perfect metaphor for the human condition when faced with divine truth.
We have seen that:
Linguistically, the root *Q-Ṣ-R* natively means "to overpower," and the leap to "lion" is validated by cognates in sister languages like Mehri.
Contextually, the "lion" completes the Quran's simile with logical and dramatic perfection, creating an ironic masterstroke that exposes misplaced fear.
Culturally, the onager and lion were the perfect symbols to deconstruct the Meccan pagans' pride and reorient their understanding of true power and true danger.
The verse stands as a timeless mirror. It asks every generation: What is your qaswarah? What are the things in this world—the threats to your status, your wealth, your comfort—that make you panic and flee like a startled beast? And what are the real, ultimate consequences—the true Lion of the Hereafter—that you casually ignore while you run?
The Quran, in these few short verses, does not just describe a group of 7th-century pagans. It diagnoses a perennial human spiritual ailment: the catastrophic misplacement of our most primal instincts. We fear the shadows and ignore the precipice. We exhaust our God-given strength running from phantoms, while standing numb before the one Reality that demands our utmost attention, awe, and fear.
The divine punchline echoes through the centuries: You are running from the wrong thing. The real Lion is behind you.
THE END
Our journey through the dense thicket of classical tafsīr, the intricate pathways of Semitic etymology, and the vast cultural landscape of pre-Islamic Arabia leads us to an undeniable and powerful conclusion. The debate over the word qaswarah is far more than a scholarly curiosity; it is a key that unlocks one of the Quran's most brilliantly crafted arguments.
The "Lion" interpretation is not merely one option among many. It is the only interpretation that fully coheres with the Quran's immediate syntax, its profound rhetorical structure, and its penetrating psychological insight. The image of the mighty, skittish onager fleeing in justified terror from the ultimate predator is the perfect metaphor for the human condition when faced with divine truth.
We have seen that:
Linguistically, the root *Q-Ṣ-R* natively means "to overpower," and the leap to "lion" is validated by cognates in sister languages like Mehri.
Contextually, the "lion" completes the Quran's simile with logical and dramatic perfection, creating an ironic masterstroke that exposes misplaced fear.
Culturally, the onager and lion were the perfect symbols to deconstruct the Meccan pagans' pride and reorient their understanding of true power and true danger.
The verse stands as a timeless mirror. It asks every generation: What is your qaswarah? What are the things in this world—the threats to your status, your wealth, your comfort—that make you panic and flee like a startled beast? And what are the real, ultimate consequences—the true Lion of the Hereafter—that you casually ignore while you run?
The Quran, in these few short verses, does not just describe a group of 7th-century pagans. It diagnoses a perennial human spiritual ailment: the catastrophic misplacement of our most primal instincts. We fear the shadows and ignore the precipice. We exhaust our God-given strength running from phantoms, while standing numb before the one Reality that demands our utmost attention, awe, and fear.
The divine punchline echoes through the centuries: You are running from the wrong thing. The real Lion is behind you.
THE END
Works Cited
Al-Aṣmaʿī, ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Qurayb. Kitāb al-Wuhush (The Book of Wild Beasts). Edited by Jalīl al-ʿAṭiyyah, Ādāb al-Surbūn, n.d.
Al-Baghawī, al-Ḥusayn ibn Masʿūd. Maʿālim al-Tanzīl fī Tafsīr al-Qurʾān = Tafsīr al-Baghawī. Edited by Muḥammad ʿAbd Allāh al-Nimr, ʿUthmān Jumuʿah Ḍumayriyyah, and Sulaymān Muslim al-Ḥarsh. 4th ed., Dār Ṭaybah, 1417 H [1997 CE]. 8 vols.
Al-Damīrī, Muḥammad ibn Mūsā. Ḥayāt al-Ḥayawān al-Kubrā. 2nd ed., Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 1424 H. 2 vols.
Ibn Kathīr, Abū al-Fidāʾ Ismāʿīl ibn ʿUmar. Tafsīr al-Qurʾān al-ʿAẓīm. Edited by Muḥammad Ḥusayn Shams al-Dīn, Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 1419 H.
Ibn Manẓūr, Abū al-Faḍl Jamāl al-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Mukarram. Lisān al-ʿArab. Dār Ṣādir, 2003 CE.
Al-Qurṭubī, Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad al-Anṣārī. Al-Jāmiʿ li-Aḥkām al-Qurʾān. Edited by Aḥmad al-Bardūnī and Ibrāhīm Aṭfīsh. 2nd ed., Dār al-Kutub al-Miṣriyyah, 1384 H [1964 CE]. 20 vols. in 10.
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Tlili, Sarra. Animals in the Qurʾan. Cambridge University Press, 2012.
Al-Aṣmaʿī, ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Qurayb. Kitāb al-Wuhush (The Book of Wild Beasts). Edited by Jalīl al-ʿAṭiyyah, Ādāb al-Surbūn, n.d.
Al-Baghawī, al-Ḥusayn ibn Masʿūd. Maʿālim al-Tanzīl fī Tafsīr al-Qurʾān = Tafsīr al-Baghawī. Edited by Muḥammad ʿAbd Allāh al-Nimr, ʿUthmān Jumuʿah Ḍumayriyyah, and Sulaymān Muslim al-Ḥarsh. 4th ed., Dār Ṭaybah, 1417 H [1997 CE]. 8 vols.
Al-Damīrī, Muḥammad ibn Mūsā. Ḥayāt al-Ḥayawān al-Kubrā. 2nd ed., Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 1424 H. 2 vols.
Ibn Kathīr, Abū al-Fidāʾ Ismāʿīl ibn ʿUmar. Tafsīr al-Qurʾān al-ʿAẓīm. Edited by Muḥammad Ḥusayn Shams al-Dīn, Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 1419 H.
Ibn Manẓūr, Abū al-Faḍl Jamāl al-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Mukarram. Lisān al-ʿArab. Dār Ṣādir, 2003 CE.
Al-Qurṭubī, Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad al-Anṣārī. Al-Jāmiʿ li-Aḥkām al-Qurʾān. Edited by Aḥmad al-Bardūnī and Ibrāhīm Aṭfīsh. 2nd ed., Dār al-Kutub al-Miṣriyyah, 1384 H [1964 CE]. 20 vols. in 10.
Al-Ṭabarī, Abū Jaʿfar Muḥammad ibn Jarīr. Jāmiʿ al-Bayān ʿan Taʾwīl Āy al-Qurʾān. Dār al-Tarbiyah wa-al-Turāth, n.d. 24 vols.
Tlili, Sarra. Animals in the Qurʾan. Cambridge University Press, 2012.
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