White Robes to Black Robes: The Abbasid Revolution Through Chinese Eyes

White Robes to Black Robes: The Abbasid Revolution Through Chinese Eyes

بِسْمِ اللَّهِ الرَّحْمَٰنِ الرَّحِيمِ 

"In the name of God, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful."

Having decoded the Zoroastrian nightmare of the "Lion's Prophecy," we now turn to its companion in the Old Book of Tang. The Chinese compilers, in their remarkable even-handedness, did not just record the bitter lament of the defeated Persians. Alongside it, they preserved a second, radically different narrative. This is not a tale of demonic lions and magical caves, but a sober, political chronicle that aligns stunningly well with the official history of the Islamic Caliphates.

This account begins not with a supernatural prophecy, but with a tribal genealogy: "In the Sui Kaihuang era... among the Da Shi (Arab) people, the Gulie tribe successively served as chieftains." It names names, traces lineages, and documents the rise of 摩訶末 (Mòhēmò) — Muhammad — whom it describes not as a bandit, but as a leader who was "brave, robust, and full of wisdom," elected by his people.

This narrative continues with a precise political chronology, detailing the fall of the Umayyad "White Robed Da Shi" and the rise of the Abbasid "Black Robed Da Shi" after a revolution led by 並波悉林 (Abu Muslim) from Khorasan. It concludes with a verifiable historical fact: the Abbasid caliphs sending troops to aid the Tang dynasty during the An Lushan rebellion.

This is not the confused report of a distant, baffled observer. As scholar Jeffrey Kotyk notes, the Chinese were in sustained, high-level contact with the Arab world, receiving numerous envoys from 651 CE onward. He points out that the Arab leaders were recognized by their official title, amīr al-muʾminīn (Commander of the Faithful), proving the Chinese were engaging with the caliphate's own diplomatic apparatus.

"The Chinese understanding of the Arabs and Islam... was not based on mere hearsay and conjecture," Kotyk asserts. These were accounts from a nation that was "neither conquered by the Arabs nor regularly engaged in military conflict with the caliphates," allowing for a more neutral, fact-based reception of information.

The confusion that plagued the "Persian Version" vanishes here. The question is no longer "Where did this bizarre story come from?" but rather "How did the Chinese court record such a coherent Islamic history?"

The answer is that we are not looking at a Chinese interpretation. We are looking at the Abbasid Caliphate's official state history, transmitted directly to the Tang court through diplomats and envoys.

This blog post will demonstrate that the so-called "Arabian Version" in the Old Book of Tang is a masterfully concise summary of early Islamic history as the Abbasids wanted it to be known. It is a political resume and a legitimizing narrative for the new regime.

We will prove this by analyzing its key features, which align perfectly with the Abbasid worldview:

• The 🌙 Historicization of Muhammad: Framed as a wise and brave political and military leader, consistent with his role in Islamic history.

• The 📜 Genealogical Legitimacy: The focus on tribes (Quraysh) and lineages mirrors the importance of genealogy in Arab and Islamic historiography.

• The ⚫️ Abbasid Revolution: The detailed account of Abu Muslim's black-bannered revolt that overthrew the Umayyads is the centerpiece of the narrative, showcasing the Abbasids as the rightful rulers.

• The 🤝 Diplomatic Reality: The concluding note about military aid to the Tang dynasty is a powerful statement of the Abbasid Caliphate's status as a major world power and a reliable ally.

The Chinese compilers, in their admirable neutrality, preserved both narratives side-by-side. They gave us the official history from the victorious Abbasids and the bitter myth from the defeated Sassanians. One is a record of diplomacy; the other, a fossil of trauma.

The historians' quest for a credible source ends here. We are not looking at a Chinese curiosity. We are looking at the voice of the Abbasid state, echoing across the Silk Road into the halls of Chang'an. Let's examine the official record.

SECTION I: The Genealogical Foundation — From Quraysh to the Umayyads

Text: 

-

一云隋開皇中，大食族中有孤列種代為酋長，孤列種中又有兩姓：一號盆泥奚深，一號盆泥末換。

Translation: 

-

"Another account says: In the Sui Kaihuang era (581-600 CE), among the Da Shi (Arab) people, the Gulie tribe successively served as chieftains. Within the Gulie tribe, there were two clans: one was called Penni Xishen, and the other was called Penni Mohuan."

📜 The Historical & Linguistic Breakdown

This opening line is a masterclass in concise historical reporting. It doesn't start with a miracle or a myth; it starts with a genealogy, which was the bedrock of Arab tribal identity and political legitimacy.

Chinese Term	Middle Chinese (EMC) Reconstruction	Arabic Equivalent	Identification & Significance
孤列 (Gūliè)	kuə liat	Quraysh (قُرَيْش)	🏛️ The Prophet's Tribe. This is the ruling tribe of Mecca, to which Muhammad belonged. The transcription is remarkably accurate, capturing the core sounds "Quray-" (kuə liat).
盆泥奚深 (Pénní Xīshēn)	buan neh ɣei ɕim	Banū Hāshim (بَنُو هَاشِم)	✨ The Prophet's Clan. "Banū" means "sons of," and "Hāshim" was the clan of Muhammad. The Chinese "Penni" perfectly transcribes "Banū," and "Xishen" is an excellent fit for "Hāshim."
盆泥末換 (Pénní Mòhuàn)	buan neh mɑt ɣuanh	Banū Marwān (بَنُو مَرْوَان)	👑 The Umayyad Dynasty. This is not a mistake; it's a precise identification. Marwan I was the founder of the Marwanid line of the Umayyad Caliphate. The Chinese "Mohuan" is a perfect fit for "Marwān."

🔍 Meticulous Detailed Commentary

1. The "Gulie" (Quraysh) as the Ruling Class 🏛️

• The text immediately establishes a sophisticated understanding of Arabian social structure. It correctly identifies the Quraysh not just as a random tribe, but as the lineage that "successively served as chieftains." This reflects the historical reality where the Quraysh held custodianship of the Ka'ba and dominated Meccan politics.

• Why this matters: The Chinese chroniclers are recording a key piece of information that legitimizes the entire narrative that follows. By establishing the ruling tribe, they ground the subsequent rise of Muhammad and the caliphs in a recognized political framework.

2. The "Two Clans" Within: A Dynastic Split ⚔️

• The separation into Banū Hāshim and Banū Marwān is a brilliant piece of historical compression. It perfectly encapsulates the two major political powers of early Islam:

  • The Hashemites (Banū Hāshim): The bloodline of the Prophet Muhammad, from which the early Islamic community and later the Abbasids claimed legitimacy.

  • The Marwanids (Banū Marwān): The ruling house of the Umayyad Caliphate after Mu'awiya, who moved the capital to Damascus and oversaw the empire's greatest expansion.

Flow of Political Legitimacy:

🏛️ Quraysh Tribe → Divides into Two Ruling Clans

⬇️

✨ Banū Hāshim (Prophetic Line) | 👑 Banū Marwān (Umayyad Caliphs)

(Leads to Muhammad) | (Leads to Marwan I & his descendants)

3. Why "Marwan" and not "Umayya"? 🤔

• The text doesn't use a generic term for Umayyads; it uses the specific name Marwan. This is a strong indication that the source of this information was Abbasid.

• The Abbasids, who overthrew the Umayyads, had a vested interest in portraying their predecessors as a specific, corrupt branch (the Marwanids) rather than the broader Umayyad clan. This framing delegitimizes the Umayyads by tying them to the later, often-condemned rulers like Marwan II (whom we will meet later in the text), and legitimizes the Abbasids by connecting them back to the prophetic line of Banū Hāshim.

💎 Conclusion of Section I

This single, compact sentence is far from a simple introduction. It is a diplomatically-sourced, politically-aware summary that accurately conveys:

1. The tribal origin of the Islamic state (Quraysh).

2. The key familial split that defined early Islamic politics (Hashemites vs. Marwanids).

3. The Abbasid perspective that likely shaped this historical transmission.

The stage is now perfectly set for the entrance of the main protagonist. The chronicle has established the royal house; now, its most famous son will take the stage.

SECTION II: The Rise of the Prophet and the Dawn of Conquest

Text: 

-

其奚深後有摩訶末者，勇健多智，眾立之為主，東西征伐，開地三千里，兼克夏臘，一名釤城。

Translation: 

-

"From the Xishen [Banū Hāshim] thereafter, there was Mòhēmò [Muhammad]. He was brave, robust, and full of wisdom; the people established him as their ruler. He launched expeditions east and west, opening up [conquering] three thousand li of territory, and additionally vanquished Xialà and also a place called Shancheng."

📜 The Historical & Linguistic Breakdown

This section transitions from genealogy to action, introducing the founder and his military successes with remarkable clarity.

Chinese Term	Middle Chinese (EMC) Reconstruction	Arabic Equivalent	Identification & Significance
摩訶末 (Mòhēmò)	ma xa mɑt	Muhammad (مُحَمَّد)	✨ The Prophet of Islam. The transcription is phonetically excellent. The final "-t" (末) is a perfect match for the classical Arabic pronunciation "Muhammat." This is a direct, respectful recognition, unlike the anonymous "Persian Hu" in the other account.
夏臘 (Xiàlà)	ɣa' lap	Al-Ḥīra (ٱلْحِيرَة)	🏛️ The Lakhmid Capital. The Middle Chinese fits "Al-Ḥīra" very well. This was a major Arab Christian city on the frontier of the Sassanian Empire, a vital pre-Islamic cultural center.
釤城 (Shànchéng)	ʂam' dʑiaŋ	Al-Shām (ٱلشَّام) / Damascus	🏙️ The Levant / Damascus. "Shancheng" literally means "Sham City." This is a brilliant translation. The Chinese took the Arabic name for the Levant, al-Shām, and added "city" (城) to specify its major urban center, Damascus.

🔍 Meticulous Detailed Commentary

1. The Portrait of "Mòhēmò": A Leader, Not a Prophet? 👳‍♂️

• The description "勇健多智" (brave, robust, and full of wisdom) paints a picture of an ideal tribal leader and strategist. This aligns perfectly with the Islamic view of Muhammad as a political, military, and spiritual leader.

• "The people established him as their ruler" (眾立之為主) is a crucial phrase. It reflects the historical Bay'ah (pledge of allegiance) given to Muhammad by his followers at Aqaba and later in Medina. It frames his authority as stemming from popular consent and leadership qualities, a concept easily understood by the Chinese bureaucratic mind.

• Contrast with the Persian Version: The difference is stark. Here, he is named, genealogically placed, and praised. In the Persian version, he is an anonymous, demonically-inspired bandit.

2. The Conquests: A Telescoped Timeline ⏳⚔️

This is where the Chinese account compresses history for narrative flow, as we shall show below:

• "Opened up three thousand li of territory": This is a classic Chinese historiographical phrase indicating massive, successful military expansion in all directions. It perfectly captures the explosive early conquests of the Rashidun Caliphate.

• The Conquered Cities: The text lists two symbolic victories:

  1. 夏臘 (Al-Ḥīra): This city fell in May 633 CE to General Khalid ibn al-Walid, just months after the Prophet's death. It was one of the first major non-Arabian cities to fall to the Muslim armies, representing the breakthrough into the Sassanian Empire.

  2. 釤城 (Al-Shām/Damascus): This great city, the future capital of the Umayyads, fell in August 635 CE after a long siege. It was the first major capital of the Roman Levant to be conquered.

Flow of Early Conquests (Historical vs. Narrative):

Historical Reality

⬇️

June 632: Prophet Muhammad dies.

→ May 633: Khalid ibn al-Walid conquers Al-Ḥīra (Sassanian front).

→ August 635: Abu Ubaydah & Khalid conquer Damascus (Roman front).

⬇️

Chinese Narrative Compression

⬇️

"Mòhēmò... launched expeditions... and vanquished Xialà (Al-Ḥīra) and Shancheng (Damascus)."

Why this compression?

• Source: The Abbasid informants are providing a summary of the foundational conquests that built their predecessor state (the Rashidun Caliphate).

• Clarity: Attributing the momentum and initial, decisive victories to the founding figure (Muhammad) is a powerful narrative tool. It simplifies a complex sequence of events under multiple caliphs into a single, heroic origin story.

• Symbolism: The conquest of these two cities symbolizes the simultaneous defeat of both superpowers: Al-Ḥīra (Sassanian) and Damascus (Byzantine). It's a statement of total victory.

💎 Conclusion of Section II

This section serves to:

1. Legitimize Muhammad as a wise and powerful founding ruler.

2. Establish the military might of the nascent Islamic state by listing two profoundly significant conquests.

3. Streamline history to create a coherent and impactful narrative of meteoric rise, from a tribal chief to a conqueror of empires.

The stage is now set. The founder has laid the groundwork, and the narrative will now follow the dynasty he inspired, through its first major civil war and subsequent revolution.

SECTION III: The Corrupt Tyrant — Marwan II and the Fall of the Umayyads

Text:

-

 摩訶末後十四代，至末換。末換殺其兄伊疾而自立，復殘忍，其下怨之。

Translation: 

-

"After Mohemo (Muhammad), [after] fourteen generations, they reached Mohuan. Mohuan killed his elder brother Yiji and set himself up [as ruler]. Furthermore, he was cruel and brutal, and those under him resented him."

📜 The Historical & Linguistic Breakdown

This section identifies the last Umayyad caliph and catalogs his crimes to justify his upcoming overthrow.

Chinese Term	Middle Chinese (EMC) Reconstruction	Arabic Equivalent	Identification & Significance
末換 (Mòhuàn)	mɑt ɣuanh	Marwān (مَرْوَان)	👑 Marwān II ibn Muḥammad. The same transcription used in Section I for the Banū Marwān. This correctly identifies the final Umayyad caliph from the Marwanid line.
伊疾 (Yījí)	ʔiəi dzit	Yazīd (يَزِيد)	⚔️ Yazīd III ibn al-Walīd. The transcription is a good fit for "Yazīd." While not a biological brother, he was a dynastic rival from the same Umayyad house.
殺其兄 (Shā qí xiōng)	N/A	N/A	"Killed his elder brother." This is a crucial Confucian framing. In Chinese political thought, murdering a familial superior is the ultimate act of immorality and disqualifies a ruler.
殘忍 (Cánrěn)	N/A	N/A	"Cruel and brutal." The standard Chinese historiographical term for a tyrant, cementing his illegitimacy.

🔍 Meticulous Detailed Commentary

1. The "Fourteen Generations" Riddle — A Political, Not Biological, Count 🧬

The phrase "after Mohemo, fourteen generations" is not a historical error, but a profound piece of Abbasid political propaganda and Chinese historical framing. A literal, biological count from Muhammad would be incorrect and misses the point entirely.

The number fourteen serves two powerful purposes:

1. It signifies the completion of a corrupt, dynastic cycle. In Chinese historiography, numbers could hold symbolic weight, and a long sequence of rulers ending in a tyrant clearly signals that the "Mandate of Heaven" has been exhausted.

2. It reflects the Abbasid worldview: They considered the entire Umayyad dynasty a singular, illegitimate interruption of the rightful leadership stemming from the Prophet's family (Ahl al-Bayt).

Let's trace the "Fourteen Generations" as a count of Umayyad political rulers, which is the most coherent interpretation:

The Umayyad Caliphs: The "White Robed Da Shi" (14 Political Generations)

Here is the complete lineage, showing the progression from founder to final tyrant. The rulers in bold are the key figures in our narrative:

Generation	Caliph & Reign	Notes & Significance
1	Mu'awiya I (661–680)	Founder of the Umayyad Caliphate. Moves capital to Damascus. The Abbasids count from him as the start of the usurpation.
2	Yazid I (680–683)	His reign sees the Battle of Karbala, a central event in Shia Islam and a black mark on the Umayyads from the Abbasid perspective.
3	Mu'awiya II (683–684)	Rules for only a few months. Dies young, leading to a succession crisis.
4	Marwan I (684–685)	Founder of the Marwanid line within the Umayyad dynasty. Our text's "Banu Mohuan".
5	Abd al-Malik (685–705)	Consolidates the empire, Arabizes the administration, builds the Dome of the Rock.
6	Al-Walid I (705–715)	Peak of Umayyad expansion; conquests in Spain and Central Asia.
7	Sulayman (715–717)	Launches the failed siege of Constantinople.
8	Umar II (717–720)	Known for his piety; a rare Umayyad viewed positively in later Islamic history.
9	Yazid II (720–724)	His reign marks the beginning of the Umayyad decline.
10	Hisham (724–743)	The last great Umayyad. A capable administrator, but his reign ends with military defeats and rising internal dissent.
11	Al-Walid II (743–744)	Viewed as frivolous and immoral. His alienation of the court elite leads to his assassination.
12	Yazid III (744)	The "Yiji" of our text. Seizes power by force, killing Al-Walid II. Rules for only six months before dying of a brain tumor.
13	Ibrahim (744)	Brother of Yazid III. His succession is chaotic and immediately challenged. He rules for roughly two months.
14	Marwan II (744–750)	The "Mohuan" of our text. The 14th and final Umayyad caliph. His defeat marks the end of the "White Robed" dynasty.

Why This Political Count Makes Perfect Sense:

• Abbasid Perspective: For the Abbasids, the true history resumed with them, after a 14-ruler-long illegitimate interregnum. Presenting the Umayyads as a single, completed cycle of corruption was a core part of their legitimizing narrative.

• Chinese Reception: The Tang court historians received this framed history. "After Muhammad, fourteen generations" was likely how the Abbasid envoys themselves presented it: "After the Prophet, a long line of wrongful rulers held power, culminating in the tyrant Marwan, whom we have justly overthrown."

2. The "Fratricide" Claim — A Moral Justification for Revolution ⚔️

The statement that "Mohuan killed his elder brother Yiji" is a brilliant piece of narrative compression. It simplifies a complex civil war into a potent moral fable that would resonate deeply in a Confucian context, where fratricide is an unforgivable crime against filial piety, the bedrock of good governance.

Let's compare the Historical Reality with the Abbasid Narrative:

Aspect	Historical Reality 🕰️	Chinese Text (Abbasid Narrative) 📜
Key Event	The Third Fitna (744-747 CE), a complex multi-sided civil war.	A simple story of a tyrant murdering his brother.
Yazid III ("Yiji")	Died of a brain tumor after a 6-month reign. He had besieged and killed his predecessor, Al-Walid II.	Portrayed as the "elder brother" directly murdered by Marwan II.
Marwan II's Action	Marwan II, a powerful general, marched on the capital. He defeated the forces loyal to Caliph Ibrahim (Yazid III's brother and heir) and later had Ibrahim killed.	The killing of Ibrahim is telescoped and attributed to his "brother" Yazid (Yiji).
The "Brother" Claim	Marwan II and Yazid III were not brothers. They were distant cousins within the large Umayyad clan.	"Brother" (兄) is used in a political/dynastic sense. All Umayyads are framed as one corrupt family.

How the Compression Works:

Real History is Messy:

Yazid III kills Caliph Al-Walid II → Yazid III dies of illness → Ibrahim becomes Caliph → Marwan II defeats Ibrahim's army → Marwan II has Ibrahim killed

Abbasid Version for Chinese Audiences is Clean:

Marwan II kills his "brother" Caliph Yiji (Yazid) → Marwan seizes the throne → He is a cruel tyrant

Why This Framing is So Effective:

• Moral Clarity: It reduces a confusing civil war to a simple tale of evil: usurpation (殺其兄) + tyranny (殘忍) = legitimate grounds for rebellion.

• Confucian Resonance: A ruler who kills his familial superior has violated the Mandate of Heaven. His rule is inherently illegitimate and his downfall is deserved.

• Abbasid Justification: This portrayal perfectly justifies the Abbasid revolution. They aren't mere rebels; they are righteous avengers overthrowing a monstrous regime.

3. The "Cruel Tyrant" — Al-Dhahabi's Portrait of Marwan II: A Complex Reality 🎭

The Chinese text concludes its indictment of Marwan II with a final, damning charge: "復殘忍，其下怨之。" ("Furthermore, he was cruel and brutal, and those under him resented him."). This portrayal of a simple tyrant is powerfully reinforced by the Arabic historical tradition, but as al-Dhahabi shows, the reality was far more complex.

Let's compare the Chinese summary with the detailed portrait from al-Dhahabi's Siyar A'lam al-Nubala:

Accusation in Chinese Text	Evidence from Al-Dhahabi's Biography	Analysis & Verdict
"Cruel and Brutal" (殘忍)	The Blinding of Yazid al-Qasri: "He drew him near, wrapped a cloth around his finger, and gouged out his eye until it flowed out. Then he did the same to his other eye." 👁️👁️➡️💧	✅ CONFIRMED. This is a graphic, undeniable act of extreme cruelty and torture, confirming his brutal and vengeful nature.
"His subjects resented him" (其下怨之)	The Nickname "Marwan the Donkey" (مروان الحمار): The populace did not respect him. The nickname was either for his "stubbornness in war" or a taunt that the Umayyad rule was 100 years old, "the age of a donkey." 🐴	✅ CONFIRMED. This popular nickname is a clear marker of mockery and resentment, not fear or reverence.
N/A (Implied: Incompetent)	"And with all his capabilities, he was not granted success." Al-Dhahabi explicitly states that despite his talents, he failed.	✅ CONFIRMED. The Chinese text implies this through the rebellion; al-Dhahabi states it directly. He was the wrong man for a collapsing era.

🔎 The Duality of Marwan II: The Capable General vs. The Final Caliph

Al-Dhahabi's biography reveals that Marwan II was not a simple monster. He was a complex and formidable figure, which makes his ultimate failure more tragic and telling.

His Formidable Strengths (The "Tools" for Success):

• "A hero, brave, shrewd, weighty, and tyrannical." ⚔️

• "He could endure forced marches, his matted hair never drying." 💪 (A metaphor for relentless campaigning).

• "He pacified the Kharijites in Al-Jazira." 🗺️ (A capable military strategist).

• "White, with a huge head, strong build, copious white beard... imposing, severe." 👑 (The very image of a powerful ruler).

• "Cultured, eloquent, he left influential writings." 📜 (An educated and intelligent man).

The Inescapable Reality (Why he Failed):

• The Curse of Timing: 🏚️ He inherited an empire already in terminal decline from the civil war (Third Fitna). He was trying to put out a fire that was already raging.

• The "Donkey" Nickname: 🐴 This public ridicule shows he had already lost the vital ingredient of political legitimacy and popular support.

• Al-Dhahabi's Final Judgment: 📉 "And with all his complete tools, he was not granted success (لَمْ يُرْزَقْ سَعَادَة)." This is the most profound insight. He had the talent, but not the divine favor or the luck required to save the dynasty.

💎 Conclusion of Section III: The Perfect Storm of Tyranny and Failure

The Chinese account and al-Dhahabi's biography, though separated by vast distances, converge on the same historical conclusion from different angles:

The Chinese (Abbasid) Perspective:

Marwan II = Fratricidal Usurper + Cruel Tyrant = Legitimate Target for Revolution

Al-Dhahabi's (Historical) Perspective:

Marwan II = Capable General + Brutal Act + Unlucky & Hated + Inherited a Collapsing State = The Inevitable Fall Guy

The Final Verdict:

The Chinese description of "cruel and brutal" is validated by acts like the blinding of al-Qasri. The claim that "his subjects resented him" is confirmed by his derogatory nickname and the widespread rebellion.

However, al-Dhahabi adds the crucial context: Marwan II was a capable leader who might have succeeded in a stable era. His brutality was, in part, a desperate attempt to hold a fragmenting empire together by terror. In the end, he became the perfect symbol for Abbasid propaganda: a strong but vicious man whose personal failings mirrored the moral bankruptcy of the entire Umayyad line he represented. His complexity made him a more terrifying and effective villain in the story of their fall.

SECTION IV: The Righteous Revolution — The Black Banners of Khorasan

Text: 

-

有呼羅珊木粗人並波悉林舉義兵，應者悉令著黑衣，旬月間眾盈數萬。

Translation: 

-

"There was a man from Khorasan, a Mucu named Bing Bosilin, who raised a righteous army. He ordered all who responded to wear black clothes. Within a month, his followers numbered in the tens of thousands."

🔬 The Definitive Character-by-Character Analysis: Cracking the "Mucu" Code

To understand the genius of this passage, we must first solve its central mystery: who or what is 木粗 (Mùcū)? A meticulous, character-by-character breakdown reveals this is not a name, but a title of immense political significance.

Original Text: 有呼羅珊木粗人並波悉林舉義兵

Chinese Text	有	呼羅珊	木粗	人	並波悉林	舉義兵
Grammatical Role	Verb	Place Name	Modifier/Title	Noun (Person)	Proper Name	Verb Phrase
Literal Translation	There was	Khorasan	Mucu	person	Abu Muslim	raised a righteous army
Linguistic Journey	-	Arabic: خُرَاسَان (Khorasan)	Arabic: المَوْلَى → Persian: Mawlā → Chinese: Mucu	-	Arabic: أَبُو مُسْلِم (Abū Muslim)	-

The structure is deliberate and informative: [Origin] + [Social Title] + [Person] + [Name] + [Action]. The slot for 木粗 (Mùcū) demands a descriptor.

The transmission of this information was not a direct Arabic-to-Chinese translation. It passed through Persian intermediaries, who naturally dropped the Arabic definite article "al-". This is the key that unlocks the puzzle.

• Arabic Original: al-Mawla (المَوْلَى) - "the Client"

• Persian Intermediary: Mawlā - "Client"

• Chinese Transcription: 木粗 (Mùcū) - A phonetic approximation of "Mawla"

With the "al-" removed, the phonetic mapping becomes clear and convincing:

Chinese Character	Sound to be Transcribed	Middle Chinese (EMC)	Phonetic Match & Analysis
木 (Mù)	Maw- (from Mawla)	mɔwk	✅ Excellent. The initial bilabial "M" sound is a perfect match. "Mɔwk" convincingly approximates the first syllable "Maw."
粗 (Cū)	-lā (from Mawlā)	tʃʰɔ	✅ Plausible and Common. The transformation of a liquid "l" sound into a sibilant "c/ch" (tʃʰ) is a well-documented phenomenon in Chinese transcription of foreign words. The final "-ɔ" captures the long "ā" sound.

The problem is solved. The transcription 木粗 (mɔwk tʃʰɔ) is a remarkably accurate Middle Chinese rendering of the Persian Mawlā.

💎 The Final, Corrected Interpretation

Therefore, the sentence should not be read as: "a Khorasani Mucu named Abu Muslim..."

It must be read as: "a Khorasani client (mawla), named Abu Muslim..."

This is no longer a theory; it is the most logical and historically-grounded reading, confirmed by:

1. Grammatical Logic: It perfectly fills the slot for a descriptive title.

2. Historical Accuracy: It reflects Abu Muslim's true identity as a mawla (a non-Arab Muslim client) of the Banu Hashim.

3. Linguistic Reality: It accounts for the Persian-mediated path of communication along the Silk Road.

Conclusion: The Tang scribes were not recording a mysterious name "Mucu." They were meticulously transcribing the title "Mawla," accurately identifying the revolutionary leader as "the Khorasani Client." This is a stunning example of the precision hidden within the Old Book of Tang.

🔍 Meticulous Detailed Commentary: The Pillars of a Propaganda Masterpiece

With the "Mucu" mystery solved, we can now fully appreciate how this passage masterfully portrays the Abbasid revolution.

1. The "Khorasani Client" (木粗人) — A Populist Masterstroke 🗣️

The decision to introduce Abu Muslim not by his full name, but by his origin and social class, was a deliberate and powerful rhetorical move.

• The Structure: [Khorasan] + [Client] + [Person] + [Abu Muslim] is a piece of political genius. It immediately frames the revolution as a populist uprising.

• Geographic Legitimacy: Khorasan was the fertile, diverse eastern frontier, far from the corrupt Umayyad court in Damascus. A leader from here represented the provinces against the center.

• Social Legitimacy: Highlighting his status as a mawla was a direct appeal to the vast majority of the empire's population—non-Arab converts (Persians, Arameans, Egyptians, etc.) who were treated as second-class citizens under the Arab-centric Umayyad regime. It signaled: This is your revolution too.

This framing transformed the Abbasid cause from a dynastic squabble into a broad-based social and political movement.

2. The Symbolism of Black (黑衣) — A Visual Ideology ⚫️

The command to "wear black clothes" was more than a uniform; it was the creation of a powerful, visible ideology.

• Contrast with Umayyads: The Umayyad dynastic color was white. The choice of black was a direct, visual, and constant rejection of their rule. It created a clear "us vs. them" dynamic.

• Ideological Meaning: For the Abbasids, black was deeply symbolic. It represented:

  • Mourning: For the martyrs of the Prophet's family, especially Husayn ibn Ali at the Battle of Karbala, for which the Umayyads were held responsible.

  • Vengeance: The Black Banners were the instruments of divine retribution against the unjust rulers.

  • Legitimacy: They claimed the black banner was the Raya al-'Uqab, the banner of the Prophet Muhammad himself, thus linking their movement directly to Islam's founding.

3. The Righteous Army (義兵) — A Mandate from Heaven ✨

The term 義兵 (yì bīng) is not a neutral term for "rebels." In Chinese historiography, a "righteous army" is one raised by loyal subjects against a tyrannical ruler who has lost the Mandate of Heaven. By using this term, the Chinese chroniclers (repeating their Abbasid sources) are making the ultimate claim of legitimacy for the revolution. This was not treason; it was a moral duty.

➡️ The Narrative Flow of Legitimacy

This section constructs an irresistible narrative of a regime change that is both popular and divinely sanctioned:

⚪️ Umayyad "White Robes" → 😠 Become Corrupt & Tyrannical (Fratricide, Cruelty)

⬇️ 

The Mandate of Heaven is Withdrawn

⚫️ Abbasid "Black Banners" → 🗣️ Led by a "Khorasani Client" (Populist) → ⚔️ Raises a "Righteous Army" (義兵 - Moral) → 📈 Rapid Popular Support ("Tens of thousands in a month")

⬇️

The Mandate of Heaven is Transferred

✨ The New, Legitimate Dynasty is Born

💎 Conclusion of Section IV

This single, compact sentence masterfully portrays the Abbasid revolution through a lens that would resonate both in the Islamic world and in China. It is:

• Popular: Led by a man from the diverse eastern frontier, a mawla representing the marginalized.

• Righteous: An "義兵" raised on a moral and religious imperative against a proven tyrant.

• Orderly: Unified and disciplined under a clear, symbolic identity (black robes).

• Divinely Favored: Its rapid, widespread support is presented as the clearest possible sign that Heaven's favor has shifted.

The stage is now perfectly set for the final act: the march to victory, the punishment of the tyrant, and the restoration of rightful rule to the Hashemite line. The revolution is no longer coming; it has already begun, and its success seems inevitable.

SECTION V: The Abbasid Ascension — Restoration and Rebranding

Text:

-

 鼓行而西，生擒末換，殺之。遂求得奚深種阿蒲羅拔，立之。末換已前謂之「白衣大食」，自阿蒲羅拔後改為「黑衣大食」。

Translation: 

-

"They advanced westward with drumming [of war], captured Mohuan alive, and killed him. Thereupon, they sought out and found a descendant of the Xishen (Hashim) line, Apu Luoba, and established him [as ruler]. The period before Mohuan was called the 'White Robed Da Shi,' and from Apu Luoba onward, it was changed to the 'Black Robed Da Shi.'"

📜 The Historical & Linguistic Breakdown

This passage provides a stunningly accurate summary of the Abbasid Revolution's climax and its ideological justification.

Chinese Term	Middle Chinese (EMC)	Arabic Equivalent & Identification	Significance
鼓行而西 (Gǔ xíng ér xī)	kɔ' ɦaŋ ɲə sei	"Advanced westward with drumming"	⚔️ The Inexorable March. This describes the Abbasid army's decisive campaign from Khorasan (east) toward the Umayyad heartland in Syria (west). The war drums symbolize relentless, organized military force.
生擒末換 (Shēng qín Mòhuàn)	ʂaŋ ɡim mɑt ɣuanh	"Captured Marwān (II) alive"	👑💥 The Tyrant's Fall. Confirms the fate of the last Umayyad caliph, Marwan II, who was indeed hunted down and killed in Egypt. "Captured alive" emphasizes his utter defeat and powerlessness.
殺之 (Shā zhī)	ʂaʰ tɕɨ	"And killed him"	⚰️ The End of a Dynasty. The execution is stated bluntly, leaving no doubt that the Umayyad line has been violently and definitively extinguished.
奚深種 (Xīshēn zhǒng)	ɣei ɕim tɕuɔŋʰ	"Descendant of the Hashim line" (بَنُو هَاشِم)	🩸 The Legitimizing Bloodline. This is the core of the Abbasid claim. They were not new conquerors; they were the restorers of rule to the Prophet's own clan, the Banu Hashim, from which the Umayyads had usurped power.
阿蒲羅拔 (Āpú Luóbá)	ʔa buo la bat	Abū al-ʿAbbās (أَبُو ٱلْعَبَّاس)	🏛️ The First Abbasid Caliph. This is a superb transcription of Abu al-Abbas al-Saffah, the founder of the Abbasid Caliphate. His laqab (title) al-Saffah means "the Blood-Shedder," underscoring the revolution's violent nature.
立之 (Lì zhī)	lip tɕɨ	"Established him" [as ruler]	🤝 The Rightful Succession. The term implies a formal and legitimate accession, a conscious restoration of order after the tyrannical interlude.
白衣大食 (Báiyī Dàshí)	bɐk ʔɨi daʰ dʑɨk	"White Robed Arabs" (Umayyad Caliphate)	⚪️ The Old Regime. This perfectly captures the Umayyad dynastic color and brands them as a distinct, concluded historical period.
黑衣大食 (Hēiyī Dàshí)	xək ʔɨi daʰ dʑɨk	"Black Robed Arabs" (Abbasid Caliphate)	⚫️ The New Dynasty. This name, derived from the revolution's banners, becomes the official Chinese name for the Abbasids, symbolizing the new era.

🔍 Meticulous Detailed Commentary

1. The Campaign of Annihilation ⚔️

• "They advanced westward with drumming...": This is not a mere march; it is a ceremonial and terrifying display of power. The drumming signifies an unstoppable force, a theme found in both Chinese and Islamic military histories. The Abbasid army, led by Abu Muslim, did indeed sweep westward, winning the decisive Battle of the Zab (750 CE) near the Tigris River, which shattered the Umayyad army and opened the road to Damascus.

• "Captured Mohuan alive, and killed him.": The text emphasizes the personal downfall of the tyrant. Historically, after his defeat, Marwan II fled to Egypt, where he was pursued, cornered, and killed. This detail highlights the completeness of the Abbasid victory—they did not just win a battle; they eradicated the previous ruling house.

2. The Legitimacy of Restoration 👑

• "Sought out and found a descendant of the Xishen line...": The word "sought" (求) is profoundly important. It frames the ascension of Abu al-Abbas not as a seizure of power, but as the rediscovery and installation of the rightful heir. The Abbasids grounded their entire legitimacy in their descent from the Prophet's uncle, al-‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib, of the Banu Hashim. They portrayed themselves as the avengers of the Prophet's family, wronged by the Umayyads.

• This directly contrasts with the Umayyad founder, Mu'awiya, who took power through civil war, and Marwan II, who "killed his brother." The Abbasid rise is depicted as a conscious, communal act of restoring the natural order.

3. The Official Rebranding: From White to Black ⚫️

• This is one of the most significant pieces of information in the entire text. The Chinese chronicle provides independent, contemporary confirmation of the official color symbolism of the two caliphates.

• "The period before Mohuan was called the 'White Robed Da Shi'...": This shows a clear Chinese understanding that a fundamental dynastic change had occurred. They were not just recording a change of ruler, but a change of regime, marked by a new name and a new color.

• This rebranding was a totalizing act. It visually and linguistically separated the "old, corrupt" era (White) from the "new, righteous" one (Black), erasing the Umayyads from the ongoing narrative of Islamic rule.

➡️ The Complete Narrative Arc

This section provides the satisfying conclusion to the story meticulously constructed in the previous sections:

1. ORIGIN: The Hashemite Prophet (Muhammad) founds the community.

2. USURPATION: The Umayyad "White Robes" usurp power and descend into tyranny.

3. CORRUPTION: The Final Umayyad (Marwan II) proves their moral bankruptcy through fratricide and cruelty.

4. REVOLT: A Righteous Army of the marginalized, led by a Khorasani Client, rises under the Black Banners.

5. RESTORATION: The Tyrant is Overthrown and the Hashemite Heir is Restored.

FINAL STATUS: The "Black Robed" Abbasid Caliphate is established as the legitimate and enduring power.

💎 Conclusion of Section V

This passage is the culmination of the Abbasid state's official history as presented to the Tang court. It is a masterfully crafted narrative of:

• Justice: The tyrannical ruler is punished.

• Legitimacy: Power is returned to its rightful, prophetic bloodline.

• Order: A new, stable dynasty is formally established and recognized.

The Chinese compilers, with remarkable accuracy, recorded not just a change of government, but a foundational myth of a new world empire. They documented the moment the "White Robed" past was officially buried and the "Black Robed" future began.

SECTION VI: Abbasid-Tang Amity — Allies on the Silk Road

Text:

-

 阿蒲羅拔卒，立其弟阿蒲恭拂。至德初遣使朝貢，代宗時為元帥，亦用其國兵以收兩都。寶應、大曆中頻遣使來。恭拂卒，子迷地立。迷地卒，子牟棲立，牟棲卒，弟訶論立。貞元中，與吐蕃為勍敵。蕃軍太半西禦大食，故鮮為邊患，其力不足也。十四年，詔以黑衣大食使含嵯、焉雞、沙北三人並為中郎將，各放還蕃。

Translation: 

-

"Apu Luoba (Abu al-Abbas) died, and his younger brother, Apu Gongfu, was established. In the early Zhide era, he sent envoys who presented tribute at court. During the reign of Emperor Daizong, while he was still a Marshal, he also used troops from that country to recapture the Two Capitals. During the Baoying and Dali eras, they frequently sent envoys. 

Gongfu died, and his son Midi was established. Midi died, and his son Mouqi was established. Mouqi died, and his younger brother Helun was established. During the Zhenyuan era, they became fierce enemies of the Tibetans. The Tibetan army, for the most part, was deployed westward to defend against the Da Shi, and thus they rarely posed a border threat [to us], as their strength was insufficient. 

In the 14th year [of Zhenyuan], an edict appointed the three envoys of the Black-Robed Da Shi—Hancuo, Yanji, and Shabei—as Commandants of the Palace Guard and sent each back to their homeland."

📜 The Historical & Linguistic Breakdown: Names, Dates, and Deeds

This section provides a precise chronology of early Abbasid caliphs and their active diplomacy with Tang China.

Part 1: The Abbasid Succession & Military Alliance

Chinese Term / Date	Middle Chinese (EMC)	Arabic Equivalent & Identification	Historical Context & Significance
阿蒲恭拂 (Āpú Gōngfú)	ʔa buo kɔŋ pʰut	Abū Jaʿfar (أَبُو جَعْفَر)	👑 This is Abu Ja'far al-Mansur, the second Abbasid Caliph (754-775 CE). He was the true organizational genius who built Baghdad and consolidated the empire.
至德初 (Zhide era)	(756-758 CE)	~756 CE	🤝 The First Contact. The "early Zhide era" corresponds to 756 CE. This is a historically verified event. The Abbasids, having just come to power, immediately opened diplomatic relations with the Tang.
用其國兵以收兩都	N/A	"Used their troops to recapture the Two Capitals"	⚔️ Military Alliance. This refers to the An Lushan Rebellion. After the Tang capitals Luoyang and Chang'an were captured, Emperor Suzong sent a request for help. The Abbasids, along with the Uyghurs, sent troops to aid the Tang around 757 CE. This is a cornerstone of Sino-Abbasid relations.
寶應、大曆中 (Baoying, Dali eras)	(762-779 CE)	762-779 CE	🕊️ Sustained Diplomacy. These reigns of Emperors Daizong and Dezong saw "frequent" Abbasid embassies, confirming an active and friendly relationship.

Part 2: The Continuation of the Caliphal Line

Chinese Term	Middle Chinese (EMC)	Arabic Equivalent & Identification	Historical Context & Significance
迷地 (Mídì)	mei diʰ	Al-Mahdī (ٱلْمَهْدِيّ)	👑 Muhammad ibn Mansur al-Mahdi, the third Abbasid Caliph (775-785 CE). The transcription is perfect.
牟棲 (Móuqī)	mɨu sei	Mūsā (مُوسَى)	👑 This refers to Musa al-Hadi, the eldest son and brief successor of al-Mahdi (785-786 CE). The Chinese "Mouqi" captures "Mūsā."
訶論 (Hēlùn)	xa luanʰ	Hārūn (هَارُون)	👑 Harun al-Rashid, the legendary Caliph of One Thousand and One Nights (786-809 CE). The transcription "Helun" for "Harun" is excellent.

Part 3: The Geopolitical Bonus

Chinese Term / Date	Middle Chinese (EMC)	Historical Context & Significance
貞元中 (Zhenyuan era)	(785-805 CE)	🗺️ The Geopolitical Windfall. This describes the Abbasid-Tibetan war. The Abbasid frontier in Central Asia (Khurasan) was a massive drain on Tibetan resources.
與吐蕃為勍敵	N/A	"Became fierce enemies of the Tibetans."	The Tang's greatest enemy (Tibet) was now forced to fight a two-front war against the Tang in the east and the Abbasids in the west.
蕃軍太半西禦大食	N/A	"Most of the Tibetan army was deployed west to defend against the Da Shi."	This was a huge strategic advantage for the Tang, weakening their primary adversary

🔍 Meticulous Detailed Commentary

1. A Relationship of Mutual Benefit 🤝

The text outlines a relationship that was far more than ceremonial. It was a strategic partnership.

• For the Tang: They received direct military aid during their most devastating internal rebellion (the An Lushan Rebellion). Furthermore, the Abbasids acted as a powerful counterweight to the Tibetan Empire, the Tang's most persistent and dangerous external threat. This was an immense geopolitical gift.

• For the Abbasids: Recognition by the Tang, the other great superpower of the age, conferred immense prestige and legitimacy upon their new dynasty. Stable relations also secured the eastern terminus of the Silk Road, ensuring the flow of goods and wealth into their newly built capital, Baghdad.

2. Stunning Historical Accuracy ✅

The Chinese chronicle's list of early Abbasid rulers is remarkably accurate and contemporary:

• Abu al-Abbas al-Saffah (r. 750-754)

• Abu Ja'far al-Mansur (r. 754-775)

• Al-Mahdi (r. 775-785)

• Musa al-Hadi (r. 785-786)

• Harun al-Rashid (r. 786-809)

The fact that the Chinese court had a correct and up-to-date understanding of the Abbasid succession line, including the brief reign of al-Hadi, is a testament to the frequency and quality of diplomatic contact.

3. 🔬 Meticulous Breakdown of the 798 CE Abbasid Embassy

Text: 十四年，詔以黑衣大食使含嵯、焉雞、沙北三人並為中郎將，各放還蕃。

Translation: "In the 14th year [of Zhenyuan, 798 CE], an edict appointed the three envoys of the Black-Robed Da Shi—Hancuo, Yanji, and Shabei—as Commandants of the Palace Guard and sent each back to their homeland."

This was a classic Tang diplomatic practice: bestowing honorific Chinese military titles on foreign envoys as a mark of favor and to formalize the relationship before their return journey.

📜 The Ambassadors: From Arabic to Middle Chinese

Let's decode the names of these three Abbasid diplomats. The transcriptions are excellent and point to common Arabic names.

Chinese Name	Middle Chinese (EMC)	Proposed Arabic Name	Analysis & Likelihood
含嵯 (Háncuó)	ɦəm ʈa	Ḥammād (حَمَّاد)	✅ Highly Plausible. - Our suggestion of Ḥammād is very strong. The EMC "ɦəm" (含) for "Ḥam-" and "ʈa" (嵯) for "-mād" is a solid fit.
焉雞 (Yānjī)	ʔian kei	Yaḥyā (يَحْيَى)	✅ Excellent Match. - This is a near-perfect transcription. EMC "ʔian" (焉) for "Yaḥ-" and "kei" (雞) for "-yā" is a textbook example of how these sounds were mapped. The final vowel is captured perfectly.
沙北 (Shāběi)	ʂa pək	Shihāb (شِهَاب)	✅ Excellent Match. - Another superb fit. EMC "ʂa" (沙) for "Shi-" and "pək" (北) for "-hāb" is phonetically precise. The name Shihab (meaning "shooting star" or "meteor") was and is a common Arabic name. This identification is very strong.

🔍 Commentary on the Embassy's Significance

1. The Honorific Title "中郎將" (Zhōnglángjiàng - Commandant of the Palace Guard):

   • This was a mid-to-high-ranking military title in the Tang bureaucracy, typically a prestige post for the sons of high officials.

   • Bestowing it on foreign envoys was a significant honor. It did not mean they commanded Chinese troops, but rather incorporated them symbolically into the Tang imperial structure, affirming a formal and friendly patron-client relationship. It was a way of saying, "You are a valued ally of the Emperor."

2. The Ambassadors' Names:

   • The names Yaḥyā, Shihāb, and Ḥammād are all credible, respectable Arabic names fitting for high-ranking diplomats sent by the court of Caliph Harun al-Rashid.

   • The accuracy of these transcriptions is further proof of the close and careful communication between the two courts. The Tang scribes were not guessing; they were accurately recording the names as they were presented.

3. The Historical Context (798 CE):

   • This embassy occurred during the reign of the legendary Caliph Harun al-Rashid, the golden age of the Abbasid Caliphate.

   • For the Tang, this was during the reign of Emperor Dezong, a period of recovery and consolidation after the An Lushan rebellion. Maintaining good relations with the powerful Abbasids was a key part of Tang foreign policy, especially as a counterbalance to the Tibetan Empire.

💎 THE ULTIMATE CONCLUSION: Two Truths, One Chronicle

The "Arabian Version" in the Old Book of Tang concludes not with a whisper, but with a verifiable fact: in the year 798 CE, the Tang court honored three Abbasid ambassadors—Ḥammād, Yaḥyā, and Shihāb—before sending them home. This final, precise record of state diplomacy is the ultimate seal of credibility on the entire narrative. The story that began with the genealogy of the Quraysh and the rise of the Prophet Muhammad culminates not in myth, but in the tangible reality of alliance and exchange between two great empires.

In their magnificent neutrality, the Tang compilers performed an unparalleled service to history. They preserved two irreconcilable truths side-by-side, giving us a stereoscopic view of one of history's most pivotal transformations:

Aspect	⚫️ The Arabian (Abbasid) Version	⚪️ The Persian (Sassanian) Version
Nature	A Political History & Diplomatic Record	A Theological Horror Story
Source	Abbasid envoys, diplomats, and official state history.	Sassanian refugees, especially under Peroz III
Founder	摩訶末 (Mòhēmò) - MUHAMMAD: Named, genealogically placed, "brave and wise," elected by the people.	An anonymous "Persian Hu" (Shepherd): A nameless, deceived tool of dark forces.
Origin of Power	Popular Consent & Military Prowess: "The multitude established him as their ruler." 東西征伐 ("He launched expeditions east and west.")	Demonic Intervention: A talking lion (a Daevic creature) guides him to weapons and a black stone with a false revelation.
Rise to Power	The founding of a legitimate state through conquest and wise leadership.	Banditry and rebellion: "gathered outlaws," "plundered merchants."
Symbolism	⚫️ Black Robes: A unified, ideological banner for a righteous revolution.	🦁 The Lion & ◼️ The Black Stone: Ahrimanic symbols of deceit, destruction, and inverted divinity.
Portrayal of Islam	A historical-political movement led by a succession of capable rulers and caliphs.	A demonic coup, an Ahrimanic plague unleashed upon the world by a usurper king.
Conclusion	A Testament to Alliance: Verifiable dates, military aid, and frequent diplomacy between the Abbasid and Tang empires.	A Fossil of Trauma: The bitter lament of a conquered civilization, portraying their defeat as a cosmic tragedy.

🏛️ The Triple Function of the "Arabian Version"

The "Arabian Version" is a coherent, accurate, and sophisticated document that functions on three distinct levels:

1. A Legitimizing History: It provides the Abbasid state's official narrative—a story of righteous Hashemite heirs overthrowing corrupt Umayyad tyrants to restore the proper Islamic order.

2. A Practical Chronology: It serves as a reliable, real-time record of the Abbasid succession for Tang diplomats and officials, demonstrating an up-to-date understanding of their powerful western neighbor.

3. A Testament to Alliance: It documents a period of profound and friendly cooperation, characterized by military support (against the An Lushan rebellion), frequent diplomacy, and shared geopolitical interests (against the Tibetan Empire).

The Chinese compilers did not merely record a story; they documented the birth of a new world power and the dawn of a fruitful relationship that would define East-West exchange for centuries. They listened to both the victor and the vanquished, and in their silence, they judged neither, allowing history to speak in its own contradictory, magnificent voices.

THE END

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